Module1 CN MSSP Final
Module1 CN MSSP Final
COMPUTER NETWORKS[BCS502]
Contents
Course Information
Course Objectives
Course Outcome
Overview of syllabus
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Course Information
No of credits:04
Teaching Hours
Theory: 03
Lab:02
CIE Marks:50
SEE:Marks:50
CIE for the theory component of the IPCC (maximum marks 50)
IPCC means practical portion integrated with the theory of the course.
CIE marks for the theory component are 25 marks and that for the
Assessment Tests (Two Tests each of 15 Marks with 01-hour duration, are
to be conducted) and 10 marks for other assessment methods
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The student has to secure 40% of 25 marks to qualify in the CIE of the
Components Marks
Conduction of Experiments 15 Average marks
- Observation book of all
- Record experiments
- Execution of experiment
- Viva
Test 50 Scaled down to
10 marks
Total 25
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module.
Marks scored by the student shall be proportionally scaled down to 50 Marks
The theory portion of the IPCC shall be for both CIE and SEE, whereas the
practical portion will have a CIE component only. Questions mentioned in the
SEE paper may include questions from the practical component.
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Course objectives
This course will enable students to,
Study the TCP/IP protocol suite, switching criteria and Medium Access Control
protocols for reliable and noisy channels.
Learn network layer services and IP versions.
Discuss transport layer services and understand UDP and TCP protocols.
Overview of syllabus
Modules
Module-1
Introduction: Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, Networks Models:
Protocol Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model, Introduction to Physical
Layer: Transmission media, Guided Media, Unguided Media: Wireless. Switching:
Packet Switching and its types.
Module-2
Data Link Layer: Error Detection and Correction: Introduction, Block Coding, Cyclic
Codes. Data link control: DLC Services: Framing, Flow Control, Error Control,
Connectionless and Connection Oriented, Data link layer protocols, High Level Data
Link Control. Media Access Control: Random Access, Controlled Access. Check
Sum and Point to Point Protocol
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Module-4
Introduction to Transport Layer: Introduction, Transport-Layer Protocols:
Introduction, User Datagram Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol: services,
features, segments, TCP connections, flow control, Error control, Congestion
control.
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Course outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
4. Demonstrate various Routing protocols and their services using tools such as
Cisco packet tracer.
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Textbooks
3. Implement an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and
plot congestion window for different source / destination.
4. Develop a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16- bits).
7. Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client – server program to make the client send the
file name and to make the server send back the contents of the requested file if
present.
9. Develop a program for a simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data.
10. Develop a program for congestion control using a leaky bucket algorithm.
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Introduction
What is a Computer Network
Why Networking?
Or this?
different ways
MODULE-1
Introduction
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Contents
Data Communications
Networks
Network Types
Networks Models
Protocol Layering
TCP/IP Protocol suite
The OSI model
Introduction to Physical Layer: Transmission media
Guided Media
Unguided Media: Wireless.
Switching: Packet Switching and its types.
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Data Communications
cable.
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Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message.
Data Representation
Text
‣Ex: ASCII,Unicode
Numbers
Video
Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, duplex as shown in figure.
1. Simplex
• Communication is unidirectional.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
2. Half duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
E.g.: Walkie Talkie.
3. Full duplex
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
It is like a two way street with the traffic flowing in both the directions at the same time.
E.g .: Telephone network
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Networks
Network Criteria
1. Performance
Measured using:
‣ Transit time: time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
‣ Response time: time elapsed between enquiry and response.
Depends on following factors:
‣ Number of users
‣ Type of transmission medium
‣ Efficiency of software
Evaluated by 2 networking metrics:
‣ Throughput (high)
‣ Delay (small)
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2. Reliability
Measured by
‣ Frequency of failure.
‣ Time taken to recover from a network failure.
‣ Network robustness in a disaster.
3. Security
Protecting data from unauthorized access, damage and
development.
Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
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Physical Structures
Type of Connection
1. Point to Point :
It provides a dedicated link between two devices .
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices.
It uses an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.
2. Multipoint
It is the one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link.
Physical Topology
Topology of network is the geometric representation of all links and linking
devices to one another
Basic topologies:
1.Mesh
2.Star
3.Bus and
4.Ring
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1. Mesh Topology
Point to Point connection
Every device has a dedicated point-to point
link to every device.
The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
For n nodes
Advantages:
‣ A mesh topology is robust.
‣ If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
‣ Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
‣ Privacy or security : When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.
Disadvantages:
‣ Difficult installation and reconfiguration.
‣ Bulk of wiring occupies more space than available space.
‣ Hardware required to connect each link is expensive.
Practical example: connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional
office needs to be connected to every other regional office.
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2. Star Topology
Point to Point connection
All the devices are connected to a central
controller called a hub
Dedicated point-to-point link between a
device & a hub.
The devices are not directly linked to one
another. Thus, there is no direct traffic
between devices.
The hub acts as a junction:
‣ If device-1 wants to send data to device-2,
‣ the device-1 sends the data to the hub,
then the hub relays the data to the device-
2.
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Advantages:
‣ A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
‣ Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number
of others.
‣ All other links remain active. As a result fault identification and fault
isolation becomes easy.
Disadvantages :
‣ Dependency of whole topology on one single point, the hub.
Example : Local area network
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3. Bus Topology
Multipoint connection
All the devices are connected to the single cable called bus (backbone)
Devices are connected to the bus by drop-lines and taps.
A drop-line is a connection running between the device and the bus (main
cable).
A tap is a connector that links to the bus.
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Disadvantages:
‣ Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
‣ A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
‣ There is a limit on
-Cable length
- Number of nodes that can be connected.
‣ Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent from the
source.
Example
It is used to implement the basic Ethernet network.
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4. Ring Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along
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Advantages
‣ Easy installation and reconfiguration. To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections
‣ If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm
alerts the network-operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages
Example: Used in industrial control systems,
‣ Congestion reduced
metropolitan area networks, and office networks
‣ Unidirectional traffic
‣ Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source and destination.
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Hybrid Topology
Example: having a main star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus
topology
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Categories of Networks
Network Category depends on its size
Advantages:
‣ Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers and hard disks can be shared by all
devices on the network.
‣ Expansion: Nowadays, LANs are connected to WANs to create communication at a wider
level.
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Disadvantages
‣ Limited distance: Local area networks are used only in buildings or apartment
complexes it cannot be occupied in bigger areas.
‣ Installing LAN is expensive: It is expensive to establish a LAN. Here specialized
software is essential to install a server. Communication hardware such as hubs,
switches, routers, and cables are expensive to buy.
‣ Limited scalability: LANs are limited in terms of the number of devices that can be
connected to them. As the number of devices increases, the network can become
slow and congested.
‣ Single point of failure: LANs typically have a single point of failure, such as a
central server. If this server fails, the entire network can go down.
‣ Maintenance and management: LANs require regular maintenance and
management to ensure optimal performance. This can be time-consuming and costly.
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‣ The switched WAN : A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected by switches.
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Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internet. ( inter-network)
As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the
east coast and the other on the west coast.
Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to
communicate with each other.
To make the communication between employees at different offices
possible, the management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a
service provider, such as a telephone company, and connects the two
LANs.
Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet.
Communication between offices is now possible.
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When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the
same office, the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message
to the destination.
On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on
the east coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches
the destination.
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Switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two
links
. together.
A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network
when required.
The two most common types of switched networks are
1.circuit-switched
2.packet-switched networks.
• A switch is a hardware component in network infrastructure that
performs the switching process.
• The switch connects network devices, such as computers and servers, to
one another.
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1. Circuit-Switched Network
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always
available
. between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or
inactive.
In Figure, the four telephones at each side are connected to a switch. The switch
connects a telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side.
The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line
that can handle four voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be
shared between all pairs of telephone sets.
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2. Packet-Switched Network
In a computer network, the
communication between the
two ends is done in blocks
of data called packets.
A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the
packet.
Now assume that the capacity of the thick line is only twice the capacity of the
data line connecting the computers to the routers.
If only two computers (one at each site) need to communicate with each other, there
is no waiting for the packets.
However, if packets arrive at one router when the thick line is already working at its
full capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded in the order they arrived.
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The Internet
Internet is composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned by some communication
companies such as Sprint, Verizon (MCI), AT&T, and NTT.
The backbone networks are connected through some complex switching systems, called
peering points.
At the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider networks, that use the
services of the backbones for a fee.
The provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider
networks.
The customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet that actually use the
services provided by the Internet.
They pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks are often
referred to as national or regional ISPs.
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Network Models
Protocol Layering
A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate effectively.
When communication is
‣ Simple -only one simple protocol.
‣ Complex- need to divide the task b/w different layers.
‣ need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
Elements of a Protocol
‣ Syntax
‣ Semantics
‣ Timing
Scenarios
First Scenario
‣ Communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
‣ Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
‣ Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same
language
Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be followed.
1.Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
2.They know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their friendship.
3. Each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when the other party is speaking.
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Second Scenario
Assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company, but needs to move to
another branch located in a city very far from Maria.
The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange ideas because
they have come up with an innovative project to start a new business when they both
retire.
They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail through the post office.
They do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are
‣ The second layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it, and creates the
ciphertext, which is passed to the first layer machine.
‣ The first layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the ciphertext , puts it in an
envelope, adds the sender and receiver addresses, and mails it.
At Ann’s side
‣ The first layer machine picks up the letter from Ann’s mail box,
recognizing the letter from Maria by the sender address.
‣ The machine takes out the ciphertext from the envelope and delivers it to
the second layer machine.
‣ The second layer machine decrypts the message, creates the plaintext and
passes the plaintext to the third-layer machine.
‣ The third layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it as though Maria is
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‣ Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
‣ For example, in Figure 2.2, we could have used only one machine to do the job
of all three machines.
‣ However, if Maria and Ann decide that the encryption/ decryption done by the
machine is not enough to protect their secrecy, they would have to change the
whole machine.
‣ In the present situation, they need to change only the second layer machine; the
other two can remain the same. This is referred to as modularity.
‣ A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and outputs,
without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs
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‣ A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the lower layer and
to give the services to the upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer is
implemented.
‣ For example, Maria may decide not to buy the machine (robot) for the first layer; she
can do the job herself. As long as Maria can do the tasks provided by the first layer, in
both directions, the communication system works.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the
two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter.
The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object
under layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.
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Logical Connections
Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection at each layer
through which they can send the object created from that layer.
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Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the
The source host needs to create a message in the application layer and send
layer and then deliver it through the other layers to the application layer.
The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to- end.
The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in which a hop is
a host or router.
The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and the domain of
duty of the two lower layers is the link.
Another way of thinking of the logical connections is to think about the data unit
created from each layer.
In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be changed by
any router or link-layer switch.
In the bottom two layers, the packet created by the host is changed only by the
routers, not by the link-layer switches.
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Physical Layer
The lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite, responsible for
carrying individual bits in a frame across the link
Data-link Layer
Responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
The routers are responsible for choosing the best links. When the next link to
travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is responsible for taking the
datagram and moving it across the link.
The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired
WAN, or a wireless WAN.
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a
frame.
Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service.
Network Layer
Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and the
destination computer.
Responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the packet
through
possible routes.
The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP),
‣ defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer.
‣ defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer.
‣ responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination, which is achieved by each
This means that if any of theses services is required for an application, the application should
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protocols.
A routing protocol does not take part in but it creates forwarding tables for routers to help
them in the routing process.
The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its delivery and
routing tasks.
‣ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)- helps IP to report some problems
when routing a packet.
‣ The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)-IP to find the link-layer address of a host or
a router when its network-layer address is given.
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Transport Layer
Responsible for giving services to the application layer: to get a message from an
There are a few transport-layer protocols in the Internet, each designed for some
specific task.
‣ creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes.
‣
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logical connection
‣ each user datagram is an independent entity without being related to the previous
or the next one
‣ does not provide flow, error, or congestion control
‣ simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an application
program that needs to send short messages and cannot afford the retransmission
of the packets involved in TCP, when a packet is corrupted or lost.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
‣ designed to respond to new applications that are emerging in the multimedia.
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Application Layer
The logical connection between the two application layers is end to- end.
receives a response.
The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a
user can also create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) : accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).
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The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH): Remote login
Fig: Encapsulation/Decapsulation
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2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the
• It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which contains the
more information that is needed for the end-to end delivery of the
control.
hosts and some more information used for error checking of the
• The network layer then passes the packet to the data-link layer.
payload and adds its own header, which contains the link-layer
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates the datagram
from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram header
and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to be
delivered.
• The contents of the datagram should not be changed by the network layer in the router
unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed through the
next link.
• The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
2. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and passes it to
the physical layer for transmission.
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Addressing
we have logical communication between pairs of layers in this model.
Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source
address and destination address.
Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we
normally have only four because the physical layer does not need addresses; the
unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an
address.
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Fig: Addressing in
the TCP/IP protocol
suite
There is a relationship between the layer, the address used in that layer, and the
packet name at that layer.
At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that provides
services, such as someorg.com,or the e-mail address, such as
[email protected].
At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define
the application-layer programs at the source and destination.
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Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several programs
running at the same time.
At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the
scope.
A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the
Internet.
The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined
addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or
WAN).
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Fig: Multiplexing
and demultiplexing
Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers, we can say that
we have multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the destination.
Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet
from several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time)
Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to
several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its header
to identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong.
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An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software
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The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in the
OSI stack.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network
Two layers, session and presentation are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite.
The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the combination of three
layers in the OSI model
TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol. Some of the functionalities of the
session layer are available in some of the transport-layer protocols.
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The application layer is not only one piece of software. Many applications can be
developed at this layer.
If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session and presentation layers are needed for
a particular application, they can be included in the development of that piece of software.
One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium
Transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from sender to receiver.
We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted
normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.
Transmission media are located below the physical layer.
Computers use signals to represent data. Signals are transmitted in form of
electromagnetic energy.
Guided Media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another
include twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.
Twisted-pair cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together
‣ DSL lines
‣ LAN – 10Mbps or 100Mbps
STP - Shielded Twisted–pair cable
Pair of wires wound around each other placed inside a protective foil wrap
Metal braid or sheath foil that reduces interference
Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
Applications
‣ STP is used in IBM token ring networks.
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Categories
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed
standards to classify unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven
categories.
Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest
and 7 as the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for specific
uses.
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RJ45 is a keyed connector , meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way
Co-axial Cable
Co-axial cable carries signal of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable
Inner conductor is a solid wire
Outer conductor serves as a shield against noise and a second conductor
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Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge
of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the
shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in Table
7.2.
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Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmit signals in the form of light.
Light travels in a straight line
If light goes from one substance to another then the ray of light changes direction
Ray of light changes direction when goes from more dense to a less dense substance
Optical fiber
Jacket
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An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric sections: the
core, the cladding, and the jacket(outer part of the cable).
Uses reflection to guide light through a channel
Core is of glass or plastic surrounded by Cladding
Cladding is of less dense glass or plastic
Fiber Construction
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Propagation Modes
• When signal goes from one point to another they use propagation modes.
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In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center
to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.The term step-index refers to the
suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes
through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of
the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. A
graded index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the
center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams
to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
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Disadvantages
‣ Installation and maintenance. It’s a new technology. Its installation and maintenance
require expertise that is not yet available every where
‣ Unidirectional light propagation. If we need bidirectional , two fibers are needed.
‣ Cost. The cable and the interfaces are more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand of BW is not high , often use of optical fiber can not be justified
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Propagation methods
Unguided signals travels from the source to destination in several ways it is known as
propagation.
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Ground propagation:
Radio waves travel through the
lowest portion of the atmosphere
Touching the earth.
Sky propagation:
Radio waves radiate to the
ionosphere then they are reflected
back to earth.
Line-of-Sight Propagation:
In straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.
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Radio Waves
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits
radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. Frequencies between 3 KHz and 1
GHz.
Used for multicasts(multiple way) communications, such as radio and television, and
paging system.
Radio waves can penetrate buildings easily, so that widely use for indoors & outdoors
communication.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such
as AM radio.
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Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send
out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
transmission, we can have several
types of antennas.
Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves
make them useful for multicasting, in which there is
one sender but many receivers. Fig: Omnidirectional antenna
AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
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Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
There are two types of micro waves data communication system : terrestrial and
satellite
Micro waves are widely used for one to one communication between sender and
receiver, example: cellular phone, satellite networks and in wireless LANs(wifi),
WiMAX, GPS
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Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the
Horn
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to
the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines
intersect in a common point called the focus.
A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a
stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by
the curved head.
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Applications
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1
mmto 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
Example: Remote control, File sharing between two phones, Communication between a
PC and peripheral device,
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Applications
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-
of-sight propagation
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between
devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers.
For example, some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that
allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.
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Switching
how to connect Whenever we have multiple devices?
topology) ?
– make a connection between a central device and every other device (a star
topology)?
impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
– The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-
efficient
– the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is switching.
Figure : Switched
network
The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the
switches are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is connected to multiple links.
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Packet switching
In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation;
resources are allocated on demand.
The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing
protocol.
When a switch receives a packet, no matter what the source or
destination is, the packet must wait if there are other packets being
processed.
As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of reservation may
create delay. For example, if we do not have a reservation at a
restaurant, we might have to wait.
Two types of packet-switched networks: datagram networks and
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Datagram Networks
Each packet is treated independently of all others.
Even if a packet is part of a multipacket transmission, the network treats it as
though it existed alone.
Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.
3 1
4 3 2
1
4
1
2 3
1
4
2 2 3 4
1
The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not
keep information about the connection state.
There are no setup or teardown phases.
The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are
recorded in the tables.
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Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other
information, the destination address of the packet.
When the switch receives the packet, this destination address is examined; the
routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through which the
packet should be forwarded.
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Virtual-Circuit Networks
Virtual – circuit network is a category of packet switching network,
where a virtual path is established between the source and the
destination systems for data communication to occur.
This path appears to the user as if it is a dedicated physical path, but
actually is a logical circuit allocated from a managed pool of circuit
resources as per traffic requirements.
The network resources forming parts of this path can be shared by
other communications, however, is not visible to this user.
As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases
in addition to the data transfer phase.
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Virtual-Circuit Networks
– Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-
switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
– As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet
carries an address in the header.
– all packets follow the same path established during the connection.
– A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data-link
layer, while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the
physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer .
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Figure : Virtual-circuit
network
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Addressing :
Global Address : A source or a destination needs to have a global
address—an address that can be unique in the scope of the
network .
Virtual-Circuit Identifier(Local Address):
• The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the
virtual-circuit identifier (VCI) .
• A VCI is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a
frame between two switches.
Figure : Virtual-circuit
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Data-Transfer Phase
Three phases.
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a
table entry for this virtual circuit.
The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the switch
holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up.
The data-transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the
destination.
The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message.
The process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and
destination.
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Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit.
For example, suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are
required: the setup request and the acknowledgment.
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Acknowledgment
A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes the entries in the switching
tables.
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Teardown Phase
• In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame
called a teardown request.
• Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame.
• All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
Efficiency
• In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path, but the packets may arrive at the destination
with different delays if resource allocation is on demand.
• Resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can be made during the setup
or can be on demand during the data-transfer phase.
• In the first case, the delay for each packet is the same; in the second case, each
packet may encounter different delays.
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Delay
In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time delay for setup and
a one-time delay for teardown.
Total
Delay=
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