GROUP 8

• NASTIC NAOMI- 670674

• ISMAHAN ABDI- 670667
• ABDIHAFIDH AHMED- 669743
• MICHAEL NDUATI – 666751
• HAMDI ABDULLAHI- 670470
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING BASICS

What is Distance Vector Routing?

How it works?
 Distance vector routing is a dynamic routing protocol where
routers share distance (hop count) and next-hop information with
their neighbors.
 Routers periodically update their routing tables based on the
information received from their neighbors.

The Challenge? (routing loops)

 A significant challenge in distance vector routing is the potential
for routing loops.
 A routing loop occurs when a packet gets trapped in a cycle,
endlessly traversing the network without reaching its destination.
 LOOP-FREE DISTANCE VECTOR ALGORITHMS

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV)

DSDV prevents loops by assigning sequence numbers to routes.

Routers only accept updates with higher sequence numbers,

effectively discarding older, potentially looping routes.

DSDV uses a hold-down timer to prevent flapping, which occurs

when a route repeatedly goes up and down.
LOOP-FREE
DISTANCE • Bellman-Ford with enhancements combines three
VECTOR techniques to prevent loops
ALGORITHMS • Split Horizon: A router doesn't advertise a
route back to the neighbor from which it
learned the route.
BELLMAN-FORD • Poison Reverse: A router advertises an
WITH invalid route with infinite cost to its
ENHANCEMENTS neighbors.
• Bellman-Ford Algorithm: Calculates the
shortest path to each destination.
• By combining these techniques, Bellman-Ford
with enhancements ensures that routers always
choose the shortest path and avoid loops.
CONCLUSION

• Distance vector routing, while simple to implement, can be susceptible to routing loops.
• Loop-free distance vector algorithms, such as DSDV and Bellman-Ford with
enhancements, employ techniques like sequence numbers, split horizon, poison reverse,
and shortest path calculations to prevent these loops.
• By understanding these concepts and techniques, network engineers can design and
implement reliable and efficient routing protocols.
INTRODUCTION TO LOOP-PREVENTION TECHNIQUES

Loop-prevention techniques are essential in distance vector routing to prevent routing loops, which can
result in significant network inefficiency and instability. This presentation explores various methods
designed to enhance the reliability of distance vector algorithms, ensuring that routing information
converges correctly. Understanding these mechanisms is vital for network professionals to optimize
routing protocols.
 Key Characteristics
What is Distance Vector Routing?

The key characteristics of distance vector

Definition:
routing include periodic updates of routing
Distance vector routing is a protocol that
tables and the requirement for routers to
calculates the best path for data packets
announce their own distance to each
based on distance metrics. Each router
destination. This method is simple but can
maintains a table of distances to various
lead to complexities without loop-prevention
destination networks, periodically sharing
techniques.
this information with its neighbours.

Common Protocols
Examples of distance vector protocols include
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP),
which are widely implemented in smaller, less
complex networks. These protocols
emphasize ease of use and configuration.
 Overview of Split Horizon Technique
 Concept and Application of Split Horizon

Definition: Example Scenario:

Split horizon is a technique used to For instance, if Router A learns

reduce routing loops by preventing a about Route X from Router B, it
router from advertising a route back to will not send Route X back to
the neighbour from which it learned it. Router B, preventing a potential
This minimizes the chances of incorrect loop situation. This simple strategy
routing information propagating through can considerably increase stability
the network. in the network.
HOW ROUTE POISONING WORKS IN ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Concept:
Advantages
Route poisoning is a technique whereby a
This method helps in speeding up
router marks a failed route as having an
convergence times in distance vector
infinite cost, effectively preventing its use.
protocols. By quickly echoing the poison
For example, if a route fails, it is advertised
status through the network, routers can swiftly
with a metric of infinity (often 16 in RIP).
recalibrate their routing tables.

Implementation: Limitations
Upon detection of a route failure, the router However, route poisoning can lead to
immediately informs neighbouring routers increased routing overhead and must be
of the poisoned route, quickly propagating implemented alongside other loop-prevention
this information to the network. This techniques to be most effective. Additionally,
ensures that other routers do not attempt to it requires routers to have established the
use the invalid route. distance vector relationship to be effective.
Understanding Hold-Down Timers Functionality

Hold-down timers are used to prevent routing flapping and ensure

network stability. When a route goes down, the hold-down timer prevents
the network from immediately re-accepting potentially invalid routing
information for a specified duration. This allows time for network
convergence and helps avoid the introduction of stale routing information
that could lead to routing loops.
 Benefits of Implementing Loop-Prevention

Enhanced Stability Efficiency

These techniques significantly By reducing the overhead associated with
enhance network stability by erroneous routing updates, loop-prevention
preventing routing loops, thus techniques contribute to more efficient use
maintaining effective data of network resources. This leads to lower
transmission without unnecessary latency and improved performance.
delays or packet loss.
Scalability
Faster Convergence These methods promote scalability in
Loop-prevention methods lead to distance vector protocols, enabling
networks to grow without compromising
faster convergence times in routing
performance. As the network expands,
protocols, allowing networks to adapt stability remains intact.
quickly to changes and failures. This
is crucial for maintaining optimal
performance.
 Practical Uses of Loop-Prevention Methods

Enterprise Networks Telecommunication Systems

In large enterprise networks, loop- Telecommunication providers

prevention techniques are critical to implement these techniques to
manage complex routing scenarios maintain service levels in their
efficiently. Enterprises utilize these networks. Ensuring reliable routina in
methods to ensure that their data such critical
traffic is seamless and reliable. infrastructures is essential to prevent
interruptions in service.
 Future Perspectives on Distance Vector Algorithms

As network architectures evolve, distance vector algorithms will also adapt to incorporate
more advanced loop-prevention techniques. Future developments may include the integration
of machine learning for predictive routing adjustments and the adoption of hybrid protocols
that combine the strengths of both distance vector and link-state routing. These innovations
will enhance the robustness of these algorithms and improve their ability to handle larger,
more complex networks effectively.
 LINK STATE ROUTING

Core Principles of Link-State Routing

•Network Map Construction: Each router builds a comprehensive map of the network by collecting
information about all routers and their connections. This information is known as a "link-state
database."
•Link-State Advertisements (LSAs): Each router sends LSAs to inform other routers of its connections
(links) and their statuses (e.g., up or down). These updates are only sent when there’s a change, making
it more bandwidth-efficient than continuous updates.
•Shortest Path First (SPF) Algorithm: Routers use algorithms, such as Dijkstra’s SPF algorithm, to
calculate the shortest path from themselves to every other router in the network. By applying this
algorithm, each router creates a unique routing table based on the current network topology.
•Convergence and Scalability: Link-state protocols tend to converge faster than distance vector
protocols, meaning they react more quickly to network changes. This makes them more suitable for
larger networks.
Distance Vector Routing is an algorithm that Link State Routing is a dynamic routing
is subject to change where a router calculates algorithm such that each router maintains
distances to every possible destination based knowledge of the entire network, instead of
on its immediate neighbors only, the router’s sharing information only with neighbors,
routing table is shared with routers that are routers flood their link state information
directly connected, during regular intervals, across the entire network to make sure all
this received information makes the routers routers have the same view of the network
update their tables while route computation topology, Dijkstra’s Algorithm and other
employs Bellman-Ford algorithm most of the Link State Routing algorithms are employed
time, in spite of being relatively simple, in order to compute shortest path to all
however, Distance Vector Routing has some destinations, it does not lead to persistent
problems such as Count to loop but it can result in more network traffic
Infinity or persistent routing loops. due to flooding link state information.
COMPARISON BETWEEN DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING AND LINK STATE
ROUTING
Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing

• Bandwidth required is less due to local • Bandwidth required is more due to flooding
sharing, small packets and no flooding. and sending of large link state packets.
• Based on local knowledge, since it updates • Based on global knowledge, it have
table based on information from knowledge about entire network.
neighbours.
COMPARISON BETWEEN DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING AND LINK
STATE ROUTING

Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing

• Make use of Bellman Ford Algorithm. • Make use of Dijakstra’s algorithm.
• Traffic is less. • Traffic is more.
• Converges slowly i.e, good news spread • Converges faster.
fast and bad news spread slowly.
• Count of infinity problem. • No count of infinity problem.
• Persistent looping problem i.e, loop will be
• No persistent loops, only transient loops.
there forever.
• Practical implementation is OSPF and ISIS.
• Practical implementation is RIP and IGRP.
THE LINK-STATE ROUTING UPDATE
ALGORITHM.
INTRODUCTION
The link-state routing update algorithm is a fundamental mechanism
utilized by routing protocols such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
and Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS). This
algorithm is essential for maintaining efficient routing across complex
networks. It involves three critical phases: building the link-state
database (LSDB), maintaining the database, and updating the routing
table. Each phase plays a vital role in ensuring that routers have an
accurate and current view of the network topology, allowing them to
make optimal routing decisions.
1. BUILDING THE LINK-STATE DATABASE (LSDB)
The first phase in the link-state routing algorithm is building the link-state
database. This process begins with neighbor discovery, where routers send
Hello packets to identify their directly connected neighbors, establishing
adjacency relationships among routers.

ROUTER A
Hello ROUTER B Hello ROUTER C
Packet Packet
Once neighbors are identified, each router generates Link-State
Advertisements (LSAs), which contain critical information about the router's
interfaces, link states, and costs. LSAs act as snapshots of the router’s
operational state and include sequence numbers and lifetimes to indicate
their freshness and validity duration.
After creating LSAs, routers use a flooding mechanism to disseminate this
information to all directly connected neighbors. Each router forwards LSAs to
its neighbors, ensuring that all routers receive the same data and build an
identical link-state database.
This synchronized database enables routers to make efficient routing decisions
using algorithms like Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm, optimizing data packet
routing based on the current network topology.
 START

IDENTIFY NEIGHBORS

GENERATE LSA

FLOOD LSA TO NEIGHBORS

YES
IS LSA
VALID NO

GENERATE NEW LSA

END
2. MAINTAINING THE LINK-STATE DATABASE.

The second phase involves maintaining the link-state database to ensure its
accuracy and reliability. Each LSA has a predefined lifetime to prevent outdated
information from persisting in the network. As LSAs approach expiration,
routers refresh them to keep the LSDB current.
Reliability is maintained through acknowledgment messages. When a router
receives an LSA, it sends an acknowledgment back to the originating router. If
an acknowledgment is not received, the originating router retransmits the LSA
to ensure all routers have the latest information.
Additionally, when a router detects a change in its link state, it generates a
new LSA reflecting that change. This new LSA is immediately flooded
throughout the network, ensuring that all routers are informed of the updated
state.
3. UPDATING THE ROUTING TABLE
The final phase of the link-state routing update algorithm is updating the
routing table. Once the link-state database is populated with current
information, routers apply Dijkstra’s Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to
calculate the shortest paths to all destination networks. The algorithm
evaluates potential routes and selects the one with the lowest cost.
The results of the SPF calculation populate the routing table, directing data
packets along the most efficient routes. Importantly, routers only recalculate
their routing tables when changes occur in the network, minimizing
computational overhead and enhancing efficiency.
 DIJKSTRA ALGORITHM.

https://youtu.be/_lHSawdgXpI?si=273HOSiu9DNa4-LJ
ADVANCED ROUTING TECHNIQUES BEYOND DISTANCE AND HOP COUNT

OPTIMIZING NETWORK PERFORMANCE IN MODERN APPLICATIONS

• Overview: Modern applications (real-time multimedia, IoT, enterprise networks) demand

specific performance metrics.
• Limitations of traditional routing protocols (RIP, OSPF) that prioritize distance or hop count
alone.
• Importance of protocols that can ensure Quality of Service (QoS), bandwidth, latency, and
cost optimization.
 TABLE SHOWING CONTRASTS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL VS.
SOFTWARE DEFINED NETWORK ROUTING CONSIDERATIONS.

SDN TRADITIONAL NETWORK

Software Defined Network is virtual networking Traditional network is the old conventional
approach. networking approach.

Software Defined Network is centralized control. Traditional Network is distributed control.

This network is programmable. This network is non programmable.

Software Defined Network is open interface. Traditional network is closed interface.

QUALITY OF SERVICE (QOS) ROUTING

• Definition: Ensures specific service quality standards, critical for voice, video, and real-time services.
• Protocols:
• Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS): Uses labels to direct traffic along paths that meet QoS needs
(e.g., prioritizing video conferencing).
• Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): Uses composite metrics (delay, reliability) for QoS-
based routing.
DIAGRAM SHOWING MPLS NETWORK
 BANDWIDTH-BASED ROUTING

• Definition: Routes traffic based on available bandwidth, suitable for high-data applications
(file transfers, streaming).
• Protocols :
• OSPF with Traffic Engineering (OSPF-TE): Considers link bandwidth for load balancing.
• IS-IS with Traffic Engineering (IS-IS-TE): Similar to OSPF-TE, calculates routes based on
bandwidth availability.
LATENCY-BASED ROUTING

• Definition: Essential for applications needing fast response times (online gaming, live
streaming).
• Protocols:
• BGP with Performance-Based Routing: Some implementations can prioritize latency and
packet loss.
• EIGRP: Configurable delay metric for low-latency path selection.
COST-BASED ROUTING

• Definition: Optimizes routes based on financial/operational costs, important in multi-ISP

scenarios.
• Protocols:
• BGP Cost Community Attribute: Allows for cost-based routing decisions in multi-ISP
environments.
• Policy-Based Routing (PBR): Custom routing based on network policies, including cost
considerations.
 Attribute Protocol Examples Description
Ensures quality
QoS MPLS, EIGRP standards for delay,
jitter, and loss.
SUMMARY
Directs traffic to paths
TABLE OF Bandwidth OSPF-TE, IS-IS-TE with sufficient
PROTOCOLS bandwidth.

AND BGP (Performance-

Prioritizes low-latency
Latency paths for time-sensitive
ATTRIBUTES Based), EIGRP applications.

BGP Cost Community, Uses financial or

Cost Policy-Based Routing operational costs in
(PBR) routing.
CONCLUSION
• Key Takeaways:
• Advanced routing attributes optimize performance across diverse applications.
• QoS, bandwidth, latency, and cost-based routing meet specific network demands.
• Hybrid approaches allow more flexible control for varied traffic types.
• Final Thought: As network complexity grows, adaptive routing protocols are essential.
• References: geeks for geeks
• Networking Fundamentals by Andrew S. Tanenbaum
• Network Computing
• Cisco Documentation
REFERENCES

1. Doyle, J. 2005). Routing TCP/IP, Volume 1. Cisco Press. This foundational text covers routing protocols
comprehensively, including discussions on distance vector algorithms and their inherent challenges.
Essential for anyone wanting to deepen their understanding.
2. Geeks for Geeks https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-distance-vector-routing-and-link-state-routing/
3. Kurose, J., & Ross, K. (2020). Analyzing Distance Vector Protocols: Journal of Network Research, 15(2), 123-
135. This paper thoroughly reviews various loop-prevention techniques, offering insights and data-driven analysis, making
it a vital resource for network professionals
4.Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2013). Computer networking: A top-down approach. Pearson Education..

5. Perkins, C. E., & Bhagwat, P. (1994). A scalable protocol for internet routing. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM
'94 conference on Applications, technologies, architectures, and protocols for computer communication (pp. 149-158).

6. Scaler Blog. (n.d.). Link state routing algorithm. Scaler. Retrieved October 31, 2024, from
https://www.scaler.in/blog/link-state-routing-algorithm/

7. Scaler. (n.d.). Link state routing algorithm. Scaler. Retrieved October 31, 2024, from
https://www.scaler.in/topics/link-state-routing-algorithm

8. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Link-state routing protocol. Retrieved October 31, 2024, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link-state_routing_protocol