• SCHOOL : “TREE HOUSE HIGH

SCHOOL(CBSE),VADODARA”

• SUBJECT : “PHYSICS”

• NAME OF TOPIC : “YOUNG’S

MODULUS.”
•Name of the Student: Mukund
P.S.
•Class and Section: Class
11th,Division-‘B’
•School Name: Tree House High
School
•Subject: Physics
• Roll-No:11228
 Introduction
Young’s Modulus Definition:
Young’s Modulus (also called the Elastic
Modulus) is a measure of the stiffness of a
material. It quantifies the ability of a material
to resist deformation under tensile or
compressive stress.
Mathematically, it is defined as:
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
• Stress = Force per unit area
• Strain = Relative deformation
• SI Unit: Pascal (Pa)
It is a fundamental property used to compare the rigidity of different materials. Higher Young’s
Modulus means a material is stiffer, while lower Young’s Modulus means it is more flexible.
 Importance of Young’s Modulus in Material Science and Engineering:
Young’s Modulus is a crucial property in material science and engineering as it determines how materials respond to
applied forces. Its significance includes:
1. Material Selection
• Engineers use Young’s Modulus to choose the right material for structures like buildings, bridges, and vehicles.
• Example: Steel has a high Young’s Modulus, making it ideal for skyscrapers and bridges, whereas rubber, with a low
Young’s Modulus, is used for flexible applications like tires and seals.
2. Structural Integrity and Safety
• Ensures materials can withstand stress without excessive deformation or failure.
• Helps in designing structures that can handle loads without bending or breaking.
3. Mechanical Design and Manufacturing
• Used in designing machines, tools, and mechanical parts that require specific stiffness or flexibility.
• Critical in manufacturing shafts, beams, and mechanical joints to ensure durability.
4. Aerospace and Automotive Applications
• Aircraft and automotive industries require materials that are strong yet lightweight to optimize performance and
fuel efficiency.
• Example: Carbon fibre composites have a high strength-to-weight ratio and an appropriate Young’s Modulus for
aerospace applications.
5. Biomechanics and Medical Engineering
• Helps in designing prosthetics, implants, and medical devices that mimic the properties of bones and tissues.
• Example: Titanium, with an elastic modulus close to human bone, is used in orthopaedic implants.
 Understanding Elasticity:
1. Concept of Elasticity:
Elasticity is the property of a material that allows it to return to its original shape and size after
the removal of an external force. It describes how materials deform under stress and recover
once the stress is removed.
 Key Aspects of Elasticity:
 Elastic Deformation:
• When a material is subjected to an external force, it stretches or compresses.
• If the force is removed and the material returns to its original shape, the deformation is elastic.
• Example: A rubber band stretches and returns to its original size when released.
 Plastic Deformation:
• If a material is stretched beyond its elastic limit, it undergoes permanent deformation and does not
return to its original shape.
• Example: A metal wire that is stretched too much will remain elongated.
 Hooke’s Law:
• States that stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit of a material.
 Elastic Limit:
1. The maximum stress a material can endure and still return to
its original shape after removing the force.
2. Beyond this limit, permanent deformation occurs.
 Factors Affecting Elasticity:
1. Material type: Metals have high elasticity, while rubber has
low elasticity.
2. Temperature: Higher temperatures reduce elasticity in most
materials.
3. Impurities: The presence of impurities can alter a material’s
elasticity.
 Examples of Elasticity in Daily Life:
• Spring in a mattress regains its shape after pressure is removed.
• Shock absorbers in vehicles use elastic materials to absorb impact.
• Tennis strings stretch and return to their shape after hitting the ball.

 Conclusion:

Elasticity is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that

helps in designing materials for buildings, vehicles, machines, and
everyday products to ensure flexibility, durability, and efficiency.
Stress and Strain:
 Definition of stress (force per unit area):

Stress is defined as the internal restoring force per unit area that develops within a material
when an external force is applied. It quantifies the intensity of the force acting on a surface.
 Mathematical Expression:

Stress(

where:

• σ (sigma) = Stress (in Pascal, Pa or N/m²)

• F = Applied force (in Newtons, N)
• A = Cross-sectional area over which the force is applied (in m²)
 Types of Stress:
• Tensile Stress – When a material is stretched (e.g., pulling a rubber band).
• Compressive Stress – When a material is compressed (e.g., pressing a sponge).
• Shear Stress – When forces act parallel to the surface, causing deformation (e.g., cutting
paper with scissors).

 Key Points:
• Stress determines how a material will react under force.
• It plays a vital role in engineering and material selection.
• Excessive stress can cause permanent deformation or failure of a material.

 Real-Life Example:
• The stress on a bridge beam due to traffic loads.
• Stress in bones when lifting weights.
• Tension in cables of an elevator supporting its weight.
 Definition of Strain (Relative Deformation):
Strain is the measure of deformation experienced by a
material when subjected to an external force. It is defined
as the ratio of change in length to the original length of
the material.

Strain(ε) =

where:

• ε (epsilon) = Strain (dimensionless, no units)

• ΔL = Change in length (m)
• L = Original length (m)
 Types of Strain:
• Tensile Strain – When a material is stretched (length increases).
• Compressive Strain – When a material is compressed (length decreases).
• Shear Strain – When a material undergoes angular deformation due to tangential
forces.
 Key Points:
• Strain has no units because it is a ratio.
• It indicates how much a material deforms under stress.
• If the deformation is within the elastic limit, the material returns to its original
shape.
• Beyond the elastic limit, the deformation becomes permanent.

 Real-Life Examples:
• Stretching a rubber band increases its length (tensile strain).
• Pressing a foam block decreases its thickness (compressive strain).
• Twisting a metal rod results in shear strain.
 Types of Strain (Relative deformation):
(a) Tensile Strain:
• The ratio of increase in length to the original length when a material is stretched.

• Formula:

ε=
• Example: Stretching a steel wire.

(b) Compressive Strain:

• The ratio of decrease in length to the original length when a material is compressed.
 Example: Pressing a rubber block.
(c) Shear Strain:
The angular deformation that occurs when a material is subjected to shear stress.

• Formula:

Shear Strain = ​

 Example: Twisting a metal rod.

 Real-Life Examples of Stress and Strain:

• Bridges experience compressive and tensile stress due to vehicle loads.

• Rubber bands undergo tensile strain when stretched.
• Car tires experience shear stress while moving on roads.
Understanding stress and strain is crucial in engineering, material science, and construction to
ensure materials perform safely under different loads.
 Stress-Strain Curve:
 Different Regions of the Stress-Strain Curve:
The stress-strain curve represents how a material responds to increasing stress. It consists of
three main regions: Elastic, Plastic, and Fracture.
1. Elastic Region (Hooke’s Law Region):
• In this region, stress is directly proportional to strain
• The material returns to its original shape after the load is removed.
• Slope of this region = Young’s Modulus (Y).
• Elastic Limit: The maximum stress beyond which permanent deformation begins.
• Example: A stretched rubber band that returns to its original length after release.

2. Plastic Region (Permanent Deformation):

• Beyond the elastic limit, the material deforms permanently and does not return to its original
shape.
• The curve becomes non-linear, meaning stress is no longer proportional to strain.
• Yield Point: The point where permanent deformation starts.
• Strain Hardening: Some materials temporarily resist deformation after yielding before
weakening.
• Example: A bent metal rod that does not return to its original shape.
3. Fracture (Breaking) Region:
• When stress continues to increase, the material weakens and ultimately breaks.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The maximum stress a material can withstand.
• Fracture Point: The point where the material fails and breaks apart.
• Example: A stretched wire that eventually snaps.

 Summary Table:
Region Behaviour Returns to Original Key Point
Shape?

Elastic Region Stress ∝ Strain (Hooke’s Law) ✅ Yes Elastic Limit

Plastic Region Permanent deformation ❌ No Yield Point

starts

Fracture Region Material breaks ❌ No Fracture Point

 Experimental Procedure:
 Step-by-Step Explanation:
 Setup the wire
1. Fix one end of the wire to a rigid support and pass the other end over a pulley.
2. Attach a weight hanger to the free end.
 Measure the initial wire length (L)
1. Use a meter scale to measure the original length of the wire.
 Measure the wire’s diameter (d)
1. Use a micrometre screw gauge to measure the diameter of the wire.
2. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) using:

A=

 Apply weights and measure elongation

 Add slotted weights one by one and record the elongation (ΔL) for each load.
 Calculate Stress and Strain
 Stress = Force per unit area.
 Observations & Calculations:

Original Length
Load (N) Extension (m) Stress (Pa) Strain
(m)

2 1.00 0.0005 σ₁ ε₁

4 1.00 0.0010 σ₂ ε₂

6 1.00 0.0015 σ₃ ε₃

 The ratio Stress/Strain gives Young’s Modulus.

 Limitations of Young’s Modulus:
1. Only Valid in the Elastic Region:
• Young’s Modulus applies only within the elastic limit, where a material returns to its original
shape after stress is removed.
• Beyond this limit, materials undergo plastic deformation, making Young’s Modulus
inapplicable.
2. Assumes Uniform Material Properties:
• Young’s Modulus assumes the material is homogeneous (same throughout).
• In reality, materials have imperfections, micro-cracks, and variations that can alter their
stiffness.

3. Ignores Time-Dependent Behaviour (Creep & Fatigue):

• Some materials change shape over time when subjected to stress, a
phenomenon called creep.
• Materials can also weaken and break under repeated stress cycles (fatigue
failure), which Young’s Modulus does not account for.
4. Temperature Dependence:
• Young’s Modulus changes with temperature; most materials become softer at high
temperatures and brittle at low temperatures.
• The modulus value is not constant under extreme conditions.
5. Does Not Consider Shear & Bulk Deformation:
• Young’s Modulus only measures tensile and compressive stiffness.
• It does not account for shear modulus (rigidity in twisting) or bulk modulus (resistance to
volume change), which are crucial in real-world applications.
6. Not Applicable for Non-Linear Materials:
• Materials like polymers, gels, and biological tissues do not follow Hooke’s Law, making Young’s
Modulus an inaccurate measure of their elasticity.
 Conclusion:

Young’s Modulus is a useful measure of stiffness, but it has limitations in real-world

applications. Engineers and scientists must consider other factors like temperature, time
effects, material imperfections, and different moduli when designing structures and selecting
materials.
 Summary Table:

Limitation Explanation Example

Overstretched rubber
Elastic region only Fails beyond elastic limit
band

Real materials have

Assumes uniform material Concrete, wood
imperfections

Long-term stress weakens

Ignores creep & fatigue Bridges, aircraft parts
materials

Modulus changes with Metals soften when

Temperature dependent
temperature heated

Does not include shear & Only tensile and Rubber has high shear
bulk properties compressive stiffness modulus

Not valid for non-linear Some materials don’t

Polymers, human tissues
materials follow Hooke’s Law
 Conclusion of the Experiment to Measure Young’s Modulus:

From the experiment, we successfully determined the Young’s Modulus (Y) of a given material
by measuring its elongation under applied force. The results showed that:
1.Young’s Modulus remains constant within the elastic limit, confirming Hooke’s Law .The
stress-strain relationship is linear in the elastic region, meaning the material returns to its
original shape after removing the load.
2.The experimentally calculated Young’s Modulus value is close to the standard values found in
material science, confirming the reliability of our setup.
3.Factors like temperature, wire imperfections, and measurement errors may slightly affect
accuracy.

 Key Learnings:
• Young’s Modulus is a material property and does not depend on the sample’s size or shape.
• Precise measurements of length, diameter, and extension are crucial for accurate calculations.
• Beyond the elastic limit, permanent deformation occurs, making Young’s Modulus
inapplicable.