CHAPTER -2

Water of crystallization is a part of the crystal

structure of the salt. Since the water molecules are not free
water molecules it does not wet the salts.

The water of crystallization gives the crystals of the salts

their ‘shape’ and sometimes also gives a specific colour to
the salts.

They are responsible for the geometry and colour of the

 ACIDS
• An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when
placed in water.
When acids/ ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the ions split
apart from each other (dissociation). Most acids…
• Taste sour
• React w/many metals to form H 2 gas
• Are corrosive (appears to “eat away” materials while reacting)
• Have a chemical formula that begins with H+
• Zinc Metal + Hydrochloric Acid ??
• Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) H 2 (g) + ZnCl2 (aq)
 COMMON ACIDS
• Citric Acid
 Found in citrus fruits
• Used as a preservative

• Lactic Acid
 Found in yogurt
 Produced by our muscles when they are overworked

• Acetic Acid (HCOOH 3C)

 Vinegar
 Used as a preservative

• Carbonic Acid ( H 2CO3) or Phosphoric Acid (H 3PO4)

 Found in soft drinks

• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

 Found in our stomachs- aids in food digestion
 BASES
• A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-)
when placed in water
• ○ When bases/ ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the ions
split apart from each other (dissociation)

Properties of Bases
• Taste bitter
• Feel slippery
• Are corrosive (appears to “eat away” materials while reacting)
• Have a chemical formula that ends with OH
 COMMON BASES
o Ammonia
Cleaners and fertilizers

Sodium hydroxide
• Used in soaps and drain cleaners

Magnesium hydroxide
• An ingredient found in antacids
INDICATORS
 Indicators
are used to determine if a
substance
• . is an acid or a base

 An indicator changes a specific color when

in the presence of an acid or a base

 Litmus Paper: indicator made of a special filter

paper that contains dyes extracted from lichens
(the crusty “stuff” that grows in rocks)

Blue litmus turns red in an ACID

Red litmus turns blue in a BASE
Types of indicators
Indicator
s

Natural Chemical Olfactory

Chemical properties of an acid
Reaction of acids with metals
Reactive metals displaces hydrogen from the dilute acids
which is evolved as hydrogen gas and metals are formed.
Only metals that are more reactive than hydrogen i..e.
comes before hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace
hydrogen.
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
e.g - 2HCl + Mg → MgCl 2 + H2 (↑)

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2 (↑)

 Reaction of acids with metal
carbonates and bicarbonates
Acids reacts with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen
carbonates producing metal salts, water and carbon dioxide
gas
Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water +
carbon dioxide.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

Eff ervescence indicates liberation of CO 2 gas.
Reaction of acids with metal oxides
• Acids reacts with metal oxides to form salts and water. The
reactions are generally endorgeic (endothermic) and requires
heat.

• Metal oxides reacts with acids to produce neutral salts thus they
are basic in nature and called as BASIC OXIDES.

• METAL OXIDE + ACIDS SALT + WATER

CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O

MgO + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O

Reaction of acids with
bases
The reaction between an acid and a base to give salt and water is known
as neutralization
reaction.

Acid + Base Salt + water

Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride

and water.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2O
Some other examples of neutralization reactions are:
H2CO3 + 2KOH K 2CO3 + 2H 2O

H2SO 4 + 2NH 4OH (NH 4)2SO 4 + 2H 2O

Strong & Weak Acids
 When a strong acid/base dissolves in water, nearly all of the
acid/base molecules will dissociate into ions
The greater the ability to dissociate, the more potential the
acid or base has for being dangerous because there are more
ions available to react

 When a weak acid/base dissolves in water,

only a small fraction of the acid/base
molecules dissociate(dissociat
partially)
With less ions in solution, there is
less potential for danger because
there are less ions available to react
Chemical properties of
bases
Reaction bases with metals
Certain metals reacts with bases to liberate hydrogen gas.
For e.g. - when zinc metals reacts with sodium hydroxide, hydrogen
gas is evolved.
Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)
A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its
base.
2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg
 Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.
Bases when react with non-metallic oxides such as carbon dioxide
produces metal salt and water.

In the reaction, non-metallic oxide reacts with base to form salts

which indicates their acidic nature.
Base + Non metal oxide → salt + water + heat
2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Reaction of bases with
heavy metals
• Metal salts reacts with aqueous solution of bases to produce
precipitates of insoluble metallic hydroxides.

• Reactions are like double displacement reactions in which metal

ions are exchanged between salts and bases in aqueous
solutions.
• E.g.- ZnSO4 + 2NaOH Na 2SO4 + Zn(OH)2

• FeCl2 + 2NaOH 2NaCl + Fe(OH) 2

 Reaction with Acids
• Acid + Base Salt + Water
For e.g.- Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form
sodium chloride and water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl + H 2O

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4 Na 2SO4 + 2H2O

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl 2 + 2H2O

Industrial uses of bases
• I) SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH)- Used in the
manufacture of soap, Paper, synthetic fibres, petrol
refining and as a laboratory reagent.
• Also known as caustic soda.

• II) POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH) Used in alkaline

batteries and soft soap.

• III) CALCIUM HYDROXIDE [Ca(OH) 2]- Used in the

manufacture of bleaching powder, softening of hard
water and neutralizing acid in the soil

• IV) MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE [Mg(OH)2]- Used as an

antacid to neutralize excess of acid in the stomach and
to cure indigestion.
Strength of an acid or a base

Strength of an acid or base depends on the number of H+ or

OH- ions produced by acid and bases respectively.

Larger the number of H+ ions produced by an acid, stronger

is the acid.
Similarly, larger the number of OH- ions produced by a base,
stronger is the base.

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR is a mixture of of

indicators that shows different colours at
different concentrations of hydrogen ions.
pH
“ pH is defined as the negative logarithm
of H+ ion concentration. Hence the meaning of
the name pH is justified as the power of
hydrogen.”
pH scale is a tool for measuring acids and bases. The scale
ranges from 0-14: Litmus paper is an indicator used to tell if a
substance is an acid or a base. The colour of the paper matches
up with the numbers on the pH scale to indicate what kind of
substance is being tested. For example, Vinegar is an acid and
measures 2.4 on the pH scale.
pH is seen as an abbreviation of the power of hydrogen- or, more fully,
the concentration of hydrogen ion in a liquid.

It states that the pH equals the negative logarithmic value of the

concentration of hydrogen ion (H+)

pH = -log [H+]
The pH of a solution varies from 0 to 14.
Solutions having a value of pH ranging 0 to 7 on pH scale are termed
as acidic and for the value of pH ranging 7 to 14 on pH scale are
known as basic solutions.

Solutions having the value of pH equal to 7 on pH scale are known as

neutral solutions.

Solutions having the value of pH equal to 0 are known to be strongly

acidic solutions.
The acidity decreases as the value of pH increases from 0 to 7
whereas, solutions with the value of pH equal to 14 are termed
as strongly basic solutions.
pH Value and Nature of a Solution
If [H+] > 10-7, pH is less than 7 and the solution is acidic.
If [H+] = 10-7, pH is 7 and the solution is neutral.
If [H+] < 10-7, pH is more than 7 and the solution is basic.
SALTS
Salts can be defined as chemical substances that are
formed as a result of neutralization of acid and bases.

Salts are ionic compound formed by strong electrostatic

force of interaction between positively charged cation and
negatively charged anion.

When the salts dissolved in water, the salt dissociates into

ions:
For example:
Sodium Chloride
Chemical Formula- NaCl
Common name - Rock salt
Action on litmus - Neutral
Solubility - Soluble in water

Preparation and Purification of Salt:

1) Salty water from sea is collected and subjected to evaporation in open air in
fields which leaves behind residue of impure sodium chloride.

2) Sodium chloride obtained from sea water or lakes contains many impurities such
as sulphates of sodium and magnesium along with chlorides of calcium and
magnesium.

3) Common salt is firstly dissolved in minimum quantity of water to get a saturated

solution from which insoluble impurities are filtered out.

4) Hydrogen chloride gas is passed through the saturated solution when NaCl is
thrown out as crystals.

5) The soluble impurities remain in the mother liquor and pure crystals are filtered,
washed and dried.
.
Properties
i. White crystalline solid
soluble in water.
ii. Insoluble in alcohol.
iii. Common salt is starting
material for preparation of
Uses
all other sodium i. Essential component of
compounds. food.
iv. Shows hydroscopic nature ii. Preservative of food articles
due to impurities. like fish, meat, etc.
iii. For Making useful sodium
component.
iv. In Soap making
v. Making freezing mixture.
Sodium Hydroxide
Chemical Formula: NaOH
Common name: Caustic soda
Action on litmus: Turns red litmus blue
Solubility: Soluble in water

PREPARATION: (Chlor-alkali Process)

Sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of
sodium chloride (brine).

The complete reaction can be represented as,

Sodium hydroxide is formed near the cathode.

Properties
i. Deliquescent, White
crystalline solid.
ii. Highly soluble in water.
iii. Solution is bitter in taste,
Uses
corrosive and soapy in i. Used as reagent in
nature. laboratory.
iv. Sparingly soluble in alcohol. ii. Widely used in chemical
laboratories,
iii. Soap making
iv. Purification of bauxite
v. Manufacture of synthetic
fibers like rayon
vi. Paper manufacturing
industry
Sodium Carbonate
Chemical Formula: Na 2CO3
Chemical name: Washing soda
Action on litmus: Turns blue litmus red
Solubility: Sparingly soluble in water

Most important method used for preparation of sodium carbonate is

SOLVAYS PROCESS
Raw materials used: NaCl or brine solution, ammonia and
limestone.

In this process, it involves formation of sparingly soluble sodium

bicarbonate by the reaction of sodium chloride and ammonium
bicarbonate in aqueous solution.

Sodium bicarbonate on heating decomposes into sodium carbonate.

ELECROLYTIC CELL
During the process of manufacture of Sodium Hydroxide,
Carbon dioxide gas is
bubbled in the solution under pressure. Sodium hydroxide gas reacts
with carbon dioxide to form sodium carboante.
.

Properties Uses
i. White crystalline solid i. Manufacture of glass,
sodium silicate, soap
ii. On heating, the
powders, caustic soda etc.
monohydrate changes into
the anhydrous form. ii. Laundry and in softening of
hard water.
iii. Soluble in water, with
evolution of large amount iii. Textiles and Petroleum
of heat refining.
iv. Show alkaline nature after iv. Laboratory reagent.
hydrolysis
v. For wood washing.
Sodium Bicarbonate
Chemical Formula: NaHCO3
Common name: Baking Soda
Action on litmus: Turns red litmus blue.
Solubility: Sparingly soluble in water

Preparation of Sodium hydrogen

carbonate:
Obtained as an intermediate product in the Solvay or Ammonia
soda process.
OR
Passing carbon dioxide gas through saturated solution of sodium
carbonate.
Properties
i. White crystalline solid,
sparingly soluble in
water.
ii. Solution is alkaline in
nature due to
hydrolysis.
iii. On heating it releases Uses
carbon dioxide and
water forming sodium i. As a medicine (antacid)
carbonate. to neutralize the acidity
in the stomach.
ii. Making eff ervescence
drinks
iii. For making baking
powder.
iv. For production of CO2
v. In fire extinguisher.
 Calcium Carbonate
Chemical Formula: CaCO3
Common name: Limestone
Action on litmus: Neutral
Solubility: Slightly soluble in water

PREPARATION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE:

- Obtained by passing carbon dioxide through limewater
OR
- By adding sodium carbonate solution to CaCl 2.

EXIST IN VARIOUS FORMS LIKE LIMESTONE, MARBLE, CHALKS ETC.

Properties
i. White powder, insoluble
in water.
ii.Can dissolve in water
in presence of CO2
forming calcium
bicarbonate. Uses
i. Precipitated chalk is
used in toothpaste and
face powders.
ii.Used in medicines for
indigestion, in
cosmetics.
iii.Marbles are used for
building purpose.
iv.Chalk is used in paints
and distempers.
v. Used in manufacturing
of cement.
hemihydrate
Chemical Formula: 2CaSO4.H2O or CaSO4. H2O
Common name: Plaster of paris
Action on litmus: Neutral.
Solubility: Insoluble in water

Preparation:
Obtained from gypsum when heated at 100°C
.
Properties
i. Plaster of Paris is white
powder.
ii. Plaster of paris has a
property of setting hard
when a paste of it with
water is allowed to stand
aside for sometime. Uses
iii. The setting process is
exothermic. i. In laboratories for sealing
the air gaps in apparatus.
ii. In making ornamental cats
and idols.
iii. For supporting fractured
bones.
iv. As a fire proofing materials.
Water of Crystallization
“Water of crystallization" refers to water that is found in
the crystalline structure of a metal salt which is not directly
attached to the metal.”
OR

Water of crystallization is a fixed number of water molecules

present in one formula unit of salt.

A salt with associated water of crystallization is known as

a hydrate.
questions:
1. Which of the following will turn red litmus blue?
(a) Vinegar (b) Baking soda (c) Lemon juice (d)
Soft drinks

2. When zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide the product formed are-
(a) Zinc hydroxide and sodium (c) Sodium zincate and
hydrogen
(b) Sodium zincate and water (d) Sodium zincate
and oxygen

3. Acetic acid is a weak acid because

(a) its aqueous solution is acidic (c) it is weakly ionized
(b) it is highly ionized (d) it contains –COOH

4. Which acid is used in fllavoured drinks?

(a) Boric acid (b) Carbonic acid (c) Sulphuric acid (d)
Oxalic acid
6. pH of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution will be
(a) 7 (b) > 7 (c) < 7 (d) 1

7. When bitten by an ant, the sting causes irritation due to

the presence of
(a) a base in the sting (b) formic acid in the
sting
(c) poisonous chemicals in the stin (d) Both

8. A student takes some zinc granules in a test tube and

adds dilute hydrochloric acid to it. He would observe that the
colour of the zinc granules changes to
(a) white (b) black (c) brown (d) yellow

9. Which gas is evolved when acids reacts with metal

carbonates?
(a) CO2 (b) H2 (c) NH3 (d) O2

10. Baking powder contains sodium hydrogen carbonate and

(a) tartaric acid (b) washing soda (c) calcium chloride

(d) acetic acid

12. When black copper oxide is placed in a beaker in a beaker treated
with dilute HCl, its colour
changes
(a) White (b) dark red (c) bluish green (d) no
change

13. Plaster of Paris is obtained

(a) by adding water to calcium sulphate
(b) by adding sulphuic acid to calcium hydroxide
(c) by heating gypsum to a very high temperature
(d) by heating gypsum to 100°C

14. Which one of the following salts does not con-tain water of
crystallisation?
(a) Blue vitriol (b) Baking soda (c) Washing soda (d)
Gypsum

15. Tomato is a natural source of which acid?

(a) Acetic acid (b) Citric acid (c) Tartaric acid (d) Oxalic
acid

16. Tooth enamel is made up of

(a)calcium phosphate (b) calcium carbonate (c) calcium oxide (d)
potassium
18. Sodium hydroxide turns phenolphthalein solution
(a) pink
(b) yellow
(c) colourless
(d) orange

19. Increase in the H+ ion concentration, leads to

(a) an increases in the pH of solution
(b) a decrease in the pH of the solution
(c) doesn’t alter the pH of the solution
(d) decreases the basic strength of the solution

20. Which Of The Following Is Used For Dissolution Of Gold?

[A]. Hydrochloride acid
[B]. Sulphuric acid
[C]. Nitric acid
[D]. Aqua- regia

21. In acidic medium colour of phenolphthalein will be:

(a) pink
(b) yellow
(c) blue
(d) colourless
22. The chemical name and formula of baking powder are:
(a) sodium chloride (NaCl)
(b) sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
(c) sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
(d) sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)

23. What is used in fire extinguishers?

(a) NaHCO3 (b) HCl (c) NaCl (d) CaCl2

24. Which one of the following types of medicine is used for

treating indigestion?
(a) Antibiotic (b) Analgesic (c) Antacid (d)
Antiseptic

25. The nature of calcium phosphate is present in tooth

enamel is
(a) Basic (b) Amphoteric (c) Acidic (d) Neutral