Number Theory and

Cryptography

Chapter 4

With Question/Answer Animations

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 Chapter Motivation
• Number theory is the part of mathematics devoted to the study
of the integers and their properties.
• Key ideas in number theory include divisibility and the primality
of integers.
• Representations of integers, including binary and hexadecimal
representations, are part of number theory.
• Number theory has long been studied because of the beauty of
its ideas, its accessibility, and its wealth of open questions.
• We’ll use many ideas developed in Chapter 1 about proof
methods and proof strategy in our exploration of number theory.
• Mathematicians have long considered number theory to be pure
mathematics, but it has important applications to computer
science and cryptography studied in Sections 4.5 and 4.6.
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Chapter Motivation
• Number theory is the part of mathematics devoted to the study
of the integers and their properties.
• Key ideas in number theory include divisibility and the primality
of integers.
• Representations of integers, including binary and hexadecimal
representations, are part of number theory.
• Number theory has long been studied because of the beauty of
its ideas, its accessibility, and its wealth of open questions.
• We’ll use many ideas developed in Chapter 1 about proof
methods and proof strategy in our exploration of number theory.
• Mathematicians have long considered number theory to be pure
mathematics, but it has important applications to computer
science and cryptography studied in Sections 4.5 and 4.6.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Chapter Summary
• 4.1. Divisibility and Modular Arithmetic
• Integer Representations and Algorithms
• 4.3. Primes and Greatest Common Divisors
• 4.4. Solving Congruences
• 4.5. Applications of Congruences (self study)
• 4.6. Cryptography (Caesar cipher) -> Online
tutorial during the weekend

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 Divisibility and Modular
Arithmetic
Section 4.1

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 Section Summary 1

4.1.1 Division
4.1.2 Division Algorithm
4.1.3 Modular Arithmetic

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Division
Definition: If a and b are integers with a ≠ 0, then a
divides b if there exists an integer c such that b = ac.
• When a divides b we say that a is a factor or divisor of b
and that b is a multiple of a.
• The notation a | b denotes that a divides b.
• If a | b, then b/a is an integer.
• If a does not divide b, we write a ∤ b.

Example: Determine whether 3 | 7 and whether

3 | 12.
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 Properties of Divisibility
Theorem 1: Let a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0.
i. If a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c);
ii. If a | b, then a | bc for all integers c;
iii. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
Proof: (i)
Suppose a | b and a | c, then it follows that there are integers s and t with b =
as and c = at. Hence,
b + c = as + at = a(s + t). Hence, a | (b + c)
(Exercises 3 and 4 ask for proofs of parts (ii) and (iii).)

Corollary: If a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0, such that a | b and a | c, then

a | mb + nc whenever m and n are integers.

Can you show how it follows easily from (ii) and (i) of Theorem 1?
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 Division Algorithm
When an integer is divided by a positive integer, there is a quotient and a
remainder. This is traditionally called the “Division Algorithm,” but is really a
theorem.
Division Algorithm: If a is an integer and d a positive integer, then there are
unique integers q and r, with 0 ≤ r < d, such that a = dq + r (proved in Section 5.2).
• d is called the divisor.
Definitions of Functions
• a is called the dividend.
div and mod
• q is called the quotient.
q = a div d
• r is called the remainder.
r = a mod d
Examples:
• What are the quotient and remainder when 101 is divided by 11?
• Solution: The quotient when 101 is divided by 11 is 9 = 101 div 11, and the
remainder is 2 = 101 mod 11.
• What are the quotient and remainder when −11 is divided by 3?
• Solution: The quotient when −11 is divided by 3 is −4 = −11 div 3, and the remainder
is 1 = −11 mod 3.
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 Congruence Relation
Definition: If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer, then a
is congruent to b modulo m if m divides a − b.
• The notation a ≡ b (mod m) says that a is congruent to b modulo m.
• We say that a ≡ b (mod m) is a congruence and that m is its modulus.
• Two integers are congruent mod m if and only if they have the same
remainder when divided by m.
• If a is not congruent to b modulo m, we write a ≢ b (mod m)

Example: Determine whether 17 is congruent to 5 modulo 6 and

whether 24 and 14 are congruent modulo 6.
Solution:
• 17 ≡ 5 (mod 6) because 6 divides 17 − 5 = 12.
• 24 ≢ 14 (mod 6) since 24 − 14 = 10 is not divisible by 6.
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 More on Congruences
Theorem 4: Let m be a positive integer. The
integers a and b are congruent modulo m if and
only if there is an integer k such that a = b + km.
Proof:
• If a ≡ b (mod m), then (by the definition of
congruence) m | a − b. Hence, there is an integer k
such that a − b = km and equivalently a = b + km.
• Conversely, if there is an integer k such that a = b +
km, then km = a − b. Hence, m | a − b and a ≡ b
(mod m).
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 The Relationship between
(mod m) and mod m Notations
The use of “mod” in a ≡ b (mod m) and a mod m =
b are different.
• a ≡ b (mod m) is a relation on the set of integers.
• In a mod m = b, the notation mod denotes a function.

The relationship between these notations is made

clear in this theorem.
Theorem 3: Let a and b be integers, and let m be a
positive integer. Then a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if a
mod m = b mod m. (Proof in the exercises)
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 Congruences of Sums and Products
Theorem 5: Let m be a positive integer. If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡
d (mod m), then a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m)
Proof:
• Because a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m), by Theorem 4 there are
integers s and t with b = a + sm and d = c + tm.
• Therefore,
• b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm) = (a + c) + m(s + t) and
• b d = (a + sm) (c + tm) = ac + m(at + cs + stm).
• Hence, a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).
Example: Because 7 ≡ 2 (mod 5) and 11 ≡ 1 (mod 5) , it follows
from Theorem 5 that
18 = 7 + 11 ≡ 2 + 1 = 3 (mod 5)
77 = 7 ∙ 11 ≡ 2 ∙ 1 = 2 (mod 5)
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Algebraic Manipulation of Congruences
• Multiplying both sides of a valid congruence by an integer preserves
validity.
• If a ≡ b (mod m) holds then c∙a ≡ c∙b (mod m), where c is any integer, holds by
Theorem 5 with d = c.

• Adding an integer to both sides of a valid congruence preserves

validity.
• If a ≡ b (mod m) holds then c + a ≡ c + b (mod m), where c is any integer, holds
by Theorem 5 with d = c.

• Dividing a congruence by an integer does not always produce a valid

congruence.
• Example: The congruence 14≡ 8 (mod 6) holds. But dividing both sides
by 2 does not produce a valid congruence since 14/2 = 7 and 8/2 = 4,
but 7≢4 (mod 6).
• See Section 4.3 for conditions when division is ok.
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 Arithmetic Modulo m 1

Definitions: Let Zm be the set of nonnegative integers less

than m: {0,1, …., m−1}
• The operation +m is defined as a +m b = (a + b) mod m. This is
addition modulo m.
• The operation ∙m is defined as a ∙m b = (a ∙ b) mod m. This is
multiplication modulo m.
• Using these operations is said to be doing arithmetic modulo m.
Example: Find 7 +11 9 and 7 ∙11 9.
Solution: Using the definitions above:
• 7 +11 9 = (7 + 9) mod 11 = 16 mod 11 = 5

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• 7 ∙11 9 = (7 ∙ 9) mod 11 = 63 mod 11 = 8
 Arithmetic Modulo m 2

The operations +m and ∙m satisfy many of the same

properties as ordinary addition and multiplication.
• Closure: If a and b belong to Zm , then a +m b and a ∙m b belong
to Zm .
• Associativity: If a, b, and c belong to Zm , then (a +m b) +m c = a
+m (b +m c) and (a ∙m b) ∙m c = a ∙m (b ∙m c).
• Commutativity: If a and b belong to Zm , then
a +m b = b +m a and a ∙m b = b ∙m
a.
• Identity elements: The elements 0 and 1 are identity elements
for addition and multiplication modulo m, respectively.
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 Arithmetic Modulo m 3

• Additive inverses: If a≠ 0 belongs to Zm , then m− a is the additive

inverse of a modulo m and 0 is its own additive inverse.
• a +m (m− a ) = 0 and 0 +m 0 = 0

• Distributivity: If a, b, and c belong to Zm , then

• a ∙m (b +m c) = (a ∙m b) +m (a ∙m c) and (a +m b) ∙m c = (a ∙m c) +m (b ∙m
c).

Exercises 42-44 ask for proofs of these properties.

• Multiplicatative inverses have not been included since they do
not always exist. For example, there is no multiplicative inverse
of 2 modulo 6.

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 Theorems
Theorem 1: Let a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0.
i. If a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c);
ii. If a | b, then a | bc for all integers c;
iii. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
Corollary: If a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0, such that a | b
and a | c, then a | mb + nc whenever m and n are integers
Theorem 4: Let m be a positive integer. The integers a and b are
congruent modulo m if and only if there is an integer k such that
a = b + km
Theorem 3: Let a and b be integers, and let m be a positive
integer. Then a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod m.
Theorem 5: Let m be a positive integer. If a ≡ b (mod m) and c
≡ d (mod m), then a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m)
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 Primes and Greatest
Common Divisors
Section 4.3

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 Section Summary 3

Prime Numbers and their Properties

Conjectures and Open Problems About Primes
Greatest Common Divisors and Least Common
Multiples
The Euclidian Algorithm
gcds as Linear Combinations

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 Primes
Definition: A positive integer p greater than 1 is
called prime if the only positive factors of p are 1
and p. A positive integer that is greater than 1
and is not prime is called composite.
Example: The integer 7 is prime because its only
positive factors are 1 and 7, but 9 is composite
because it is divisible by 3.

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 The Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic
Theorem: Every positive integer greater than 1
can be written uniquely as a prime or as the
product of two or more primes where the prime
factors are written in order of nondecreasing size.
Examples:
• 100 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 5 ∙ 5 = 22 ∙ 52
• 641 = 641
• 999 = 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 37 = 33 ∙ 37
• 1024 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 210
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 Greatest Common Divisor 1

Definition: Let a and b be integers, not both zero. The largest

integer d such that d | a and also d | b is called the greatest
common divisor of a and b. The greatest common divisor of
a and b is denoted by gcd(a,b).
One can find greatest common divisors of small numbers by
inspection.
Example: What is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 36?
Solution: gcd(24, 36) = 12
Example: What is the greatest common divisor of 17 and 22?
Solution: gcd(17,22) = 1
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 Greatest Common Divisor 2

Definition: The integers a and b are relatively prime if their greatest

common divisor is 1.
Example: 17 and 22
Definition: The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively prime if gcd(ai,
aj) = 1 whenever 1 ≤ i<j ≤n.
Example: Determine whether the integers 10, 17 and 21 are pairwise
relatively prime.
Solution: Because gcd(10,17) = 1, gcd(10,21) = 1, and gcd(17,21) = 1, 10,
17, and 21 are pairwise relatively prime.
Example: Determine whether the integers 10, 19, and 24 are pairwise
relatively prime.
Solution: Because gcd(10,24) = 2, 10, 19, and 24 are not pairwise
relatively prime.
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 Finding the Greatest Common Divisor
Using Prime Factorizations
Suppose the prime factorizations of a and b are:

a  p1a1 p2a2  pnan , b  p1b1 p2b2  pnbn ,

where each exponent is a nonnegative integer, and where all primes
occurring in either prime factorization are included in both. Then:
min an ,bn 
gcd a, b   p1min a1 ,b1  p2min a2 ,b2   pn ,
This formula is valid since the integer on the right (of the equals sign)
divides both a and b. No larger integer can divide both a and b.
Example: 120 = 23 ∙3 ∙5 500 = 22 ∙53
gcd(120,500) = 2min(3,2) ∙3min(1,0) ∙5min(1,3) = 22 ∙30 ∙51 = 20
Finding the gcd of two positive integers using their prime factorizations
is not efficient because there is no efficient algorithm for finding the
prime factorization of a positive integer.
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 Euclidean Algorithm 1

The Euclidian algorithm is an efficient method

for computing the greatest common divisor
of two integers. It is based on the idea that
gcd(a,b) is equal to gcd(b,c) when a > b and
c is the remainder when a is divided by b.
Euclid
Example: Find gcd(91, 287): (325 B.C.E. – 265 B.C.E.)

• 287 = 91 ∙ 3 + 14 Divide 287 by 91

• 91 = 14 ∙ 6 + 7 Divide 91 by 14
• 14 = 7 ∙ 2 + 0 Divide 14 by 7
Stopping condition

gcd(287, 91) = gcd(91, 14) = gcd(14, 7) = 7

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 Euclidean Algorithm 2

The Euclidean algorithm expressed in pseudocode is:

procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)
x := a
y := b
while y ≠ 0
r := x mod y
x := y
y := r
return x {gcd(a,b) is x}
In Section 5.3, we’ll see that the time complexity of the
algorithm is O (log b), where a > b.
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Applications of Congruences
Section 4.5

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 Section Summary 5

Hashing Functions
Pseudorandom Numbers
Check Digits

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 Hashing Functions
Definition: A hashing function h assigns memory location h(k) to the record that has k as
its key.
• A common hashing function is h(k) = k mod m, where m is the number of memory locations.
• Because this hashing function is onto, all memory locations are possible.
Example: Let h(k) = k mod 111. This hashing function assigns the records of customers
with social security numbers as keys to memory locations in the following manner:
h(064212848) = 064212848 mod 111 = 14
h(037149212) = 037149212 mod 111 = 65
h(107405723) = 107405723 mod 111 = 14, but since location 14 is already occupied, the
record is assigned to the next available position, which is 15.
The hashing function is not one-to-one as there are many more possible keys than
memory locations. When more than one record is assigned to the same location, we say
a collision occurs. Here a collision has been resolved by assigning the record to the first
free location.
For collision resolution, we can use a linear probing function:
h(k,i) = (h(k) + i) mod m, where i runs from 0 to m − 1.
There are many other methods of handling with collisions. You may cover these in a
later CS course.
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 Pseudorandom Numbers 1

Randomly chosen numbers are needed for many purposes, including

computer simulations.
Pseudorandom numbers are not truly random since they are generated
by systematic methods.
The linear congruential method is one commonly used procedure for
generating pseudorandom numbers.
Four integers are needed: the modulus m, the multiplier a, the
increment c, and seed x0, with 2 ≤ a < m, 0 ≤ c < m, 0 ≤ x0 < m.
We generate a sequence of pseudorandom numbers {xn}, with
0 ≤ xn < m for all n, by successively using the recursively defined
xn 1 axn  c  mod m.
function
(an example of a recursive definition, discussed in Section 5.3)
If psuedorandom numbers between 0 and 1 are needed, then the
generated numbers are divided by the modulus, xn /m.
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 Pseudorandom Numbers 2

congruential method with modulus m = 9, multiplier a = 7, increment c = 4, and seed

Example: Find the sequence of pseudorandom numbers generated by the linear

x0 = 3.
Solution: Compute the terms of the sequence by successively using the congruence
xn 1  (7 xn  4) mod 9, with x0 3.
x1 7 x0  4 mod 9 7 3  4 mod 9  25 mod 9 7,
x2 7 x1  4 mod 9 7 7  4 mod 9  53 mod 9 8,
x3 7 x2  4 mod 9 7 8  4 mod 9  60 mod 9 6,
x4 7 x3  4 mod 9 7 6  4 mod 9  46 mod 9 1,
x5 7 x4  4 mod 9 7 1  4 mod 9  11 mod 9 2,
x6 7 x5  4 mod 9 7 2  4 mod 9  18 mod 9 0,
x7 7 x6  4 mod 9 7 0  4 mod 9  4 mod 9 4,
x8 7 x7  4 mod 9 7 4  4 mod 9  32 mod 9 5,

The sequence generated is 3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,…

x9 7 x8  4 mod 9 7 5  4 mod 9  39 mod 9 3.

It repeats after generating 9 terms.

Commonly, computers use a linear congruential generator with increment c = 0. This is
called a pure multiplicative generator. Such a generator with modulus 231 − 1 and
multiplier 75 = 16,807 generates 231 − 2 numbers before repeating.
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 Check Digits: UPCs
A common method of detecting errors in strings of digits is to add an extra digit at the
end, which is evaluated using a function. If the final digit is not correct, then the string is
assumed not to be correct.
Example: Retail products are identified by their Universal Product Codes (UPCs). Usually
these have 12 decimal digits, the last one being the check digit. The check digit is
determined by the congruence:
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + 3x5 + x6 + 3x7 + x8 + 3x9 + x10 + 3x11 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10).
a. Suppose that the first 11 digits of the UPC are 79357343104. What is the check digit?
b. Is 041331021641 a valid UPC?
Solution:
c. 3∙7 + 9 + 3∙3 + 5 + 3∙7 + 3 + 3∙4 + 3 + 3∙1 + 0 + 3∙4 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
21 + 9 + 9 + 5 + 21 + 3 + 12+ 3 + 3 + 0 + 12 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
98 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
x12 ≡ 2 (mod 10) So, the check digit is 2.
d. 3∙0 + 4 + 3∙1 + 3 + 3∙3 + 1 + 3∙0 + 2 + 3∙1 + 6 + 3∙4 + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
0 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 9 + 1 + 0+ 2 + 3 + 6 + 12 + 1 = 44 ≡ 4 ≢ 0 (mod 10)
Hence, 041331021641 is not a valid UPC.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Check Digits:ISBNs
Books are identified by an International Standard Book Number (ISBN-10), a 10 digit code. The
first 9 digits identify the language, the publisher, and the book. The tenth digit is a check digit,
which is determined by the following congruence
9
x10  ixi mod 11.
i 1 9

The validity of an ISBN-10 number can be evaluated with the equivalent  ix i 0 mod 11.
i 1
a. Suppose that the first 9 digits of the ISBN-10 are 007288008. What is the check digit?
b. Is 084930149X a valid ISBN10?
X is used
Solution:
for the
a. X10 ≡ 1∙0 + 2∙0 + 3∙7 + 4∙2 + 5∙8 + 6∙8 + 7∙ 0 + 8∙0 + 9∙8 (mod 11). digit 10.
X10 ≡ 0 + 0 + 21 + 8 + 40 + 48 + 0 + 0 + 72 (mod 11).
X10 ≡ 189 ≡ 2 (mod 11). Hence, X10 = 2.
b. 1∙0 + 2∙8 + 3∙4 + 4∙9 + 5∙3 + 6∙0 + 7∙ 1 + 8∙4 + 9∙9 + 10∙10 =
0 + 16 + 12 + 36 + 15 + 0 + 7 + 32 + 81 + 100 = 299 ≡ 2 ≢ 0 (mod 11)
Hence, 084930149X is not a valid ISBN-10.
A single error is an error in one digit of an identification number and a transposition error is the
accidental interchanging of two digits. Both of these kinds of errors can be detected by the check
digit for ISBN-10. (see text for more details)
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 Cryptography
Section 4.6

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 Section Summary 6

Classical Cryptography
Cryptosystems
Public Key Cryptography
RSA Cryptosystem
Cryptographic Protocols
Primitive Roots and Discrete Logarithms

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 Caesar Cipher 1

Julius Caesar created secret messages by shifting each letter three letters forward in the
alphabet (sending the last three letters to the first three letters.) For example, the letter B
is replaced by E and the letter X is replaced by A. This process of making a message
secret is an example of encryption.
Here is how the encryption process works:
• Replace each letter by an integer from Z26, that is an integer from 0 to 25 representing one less
than its position in the alphabet.
• The encryption function is f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26. It replaces each integer p in the set {0,1,2,
…,25} by f(p) in the set {0,1,2,…,25} .
• Replace each integer p by the letter with the position p + 1 in the alphabet.
Example: Encrypt the message “MEET YOU IN THE PARK” using the Caesar cipher.
Solution: 12 4 4 19 24 14 20 8 13 19 7 4 15 0 17 10.
Now replace each of these numbers p by f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26.
15 7 7 22 1 17 23 11 16 22 10 7 18 3 20 13.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the encrypted message
“PHHW BRX LQ WKH SDUN.”
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 Caesar Cipher 2

To recover the original message, use f−1(p) = (p−3) mod 26. So,
each letter in the coded message is shifted back three letters in
the alphabet, with the first three letters sent to the last three
letters. This process of recovering the original message from the
encrypted message is called decryption.
The Caesar cipher is one of a family of ciphers called shift
ciphers. Letters can be shifted by an integer k, with 3 being just
one possibility. The encryption function is
f(p) = (p + k) mod 26
and the decryption function is
f−1(p) = (p−k) mod 26
The integer k is called a key.
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 Shift Cipher 1

Example 1: Encrypt the message “STOP GLOBAL WARMING”

using the shift cipher with k = 11.
Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding
element of Z26.

18 19 14 15 6 11 14 1 0 11 22 0 17 12
8 13 6.
Apply the shift f(p) = (p + 11) mod 26, yielding
3 4 25 0 17 22 25 12 11 22 7 11 2 23
19 24 17.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the ciphertext

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“DEZA RWZMLW HLCXTYR.”
 Shift Cipher 2

Example 2: Decrypt the message “LEWLYPLUJL PZ H NYLHA

ALHJOLY” that was encrypted using the shift cipher with k = 7.
Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding element of
Z26.
11 4 22 11 24 15 11 20 9 1 15 25 7 13 24 11 7 0
0 11 7 9 14 11 24.

Shift each of the numbers by −k = −7 modulo 26, yielding

4 23 15 4 17 8 4 13 2 4 8 18 0 6 17 4 0 19 19 4
0 2 7 4 17.

Translating the numbers back to letters produces the decrypted

message
“EXPERIENCE IS A GREAT TEACHER.”
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