PETE507/PETE703

Advanced Reservoir Engineering

Prepared by
Dr. Mian Umer Shafiq
Nazarbayev University
Module 1
Introduction
Module Outline

1.1 Evolution of fundamental concepts in reservoir engineering

1.2 Reservoir definition and description
1.3 Classification of petroleum reservoirs
1.4 Unconventional reservoirs
1.5 Review of reservoir rock and fluid properties
1.6 Distribution of fluids and pressure gradient calculations
1.7 Primary reservoir drive mechanisms

4
Student Learning Outcomes
 Identify main functions of a reservoir engineer
 Define petroleum reservoirs, conventional and unconventional
 Describe differences between conventional and unconventional
reservoirs
 Classify petroleum reservoirs, conventional and unconventional
 Describe effect of rock and fluids properties in reservoir behavior
 Describe reservoir primary drive mechanisms

5
1.1 Evolution of fundamental concepts
in reservoir engineering
Definition: Reservoir Engineering

 Application of scientific principles to the drainage problems arising

during development and production of oil and gas reservoirs (Craft and
Hawkins, 1991)

 Reservoir Engineer functions (Dake, 1978):

 Estimation of hydrocarbons in-place
 Calculation of recovery factor
 Forecast of production

7
 Reservoir engineering evolved from the need to predict
and improve recovery from oil and gas reservoirs
1933 Fancher: Measured fundamental rock 1942 Buckley and Leverett: Developed theory of
properties (porosity and permeability) immiscible fluid displacement,
demonstrating role of capillary pressure
1935 Schilthuis: Obtained subsurface fluid and relative permeability in multiphase
samples for measuring oil and gas flow
properties
1944 Tarner: Presented an equation for
1936 Schilthuis: Derived first material balance estimating recovery of oil under solution-
gas drive
equation, describing energies that drive
oil and gas production
1949 van Everdingen and Hurst: Developed
method to estimate water influx from
1937 Muskat: first attempt to organize aquifer
concepts of fluid flow in porous media
1953 Began development of reservoir numerical
simulation models
8
Tasks of the Reservoir Engineer

 The tasks of the reservoir engineer are centered around answering the
following questions:
1. How much oil and gas is originally in place?
2. What are the drive mechanisms for the reservoir?
3. What are the trapping mechanisms for the reservoir?
4. What will the recovery factor be for the reservoir by primary depletion?
5. What will future production rates from the reservoir be?
6. How can the recovery be increased economically?
7. What data are needed to answer these questions?

9
Tasks of the Reservoir Engineer
 Two independent methods are available to determine the original oil and gas in place:
volumetrics and material balance.
 The material-balance equation and various drive indices can be calculated to give an
indication of the relative strengths of different drive mechanisms
 The displacement theory of Buckley and Leverett can be used to forecast future recovery
and production rates
 Decline-curve models also help to forecast future production rates and ultimate recoveries
 To increase recovery from a reservoir, some sort of flooding usually is involved. The most
common of these is waterflooding, but gasflooding, steamflooding, miscible-gas flooding,
fire flooding, polymer flooding, and surfactant flooding are also used
 Determining the economics of various enhanced-oil-recovery schemes depends on
determining a good model of the reservoir

10
Data Sources

 To use volumetrics, the data needed are porosity, reservoir thickness, fluid saturation, and
formation volume factors (FVF's). The first three properties can be determined at each well
only by use of well logs and cores. FVF is determined by taking a bottomhole or recombined
sample of the reservoir fluid and measuring pressure/volume relationships in the laboratory
at the reservoir temperature.
 To use the material-balance equation, the data needed are the pressure/volume relationships
of the reservoir fluids and the production volumes of oil, water, and gas as functions of
reservoir pressure. Production data should always be measured carefully. In the past,
however, water production (and even gas production) sometimes was not measured
accurately. Today, these data usually are measured accurately because the power and
usefulness of the material-balance equation is well-known.

11
Data Sources

 To apply the Buckley-Leverett displacement theory, the relative

permeability data are required. These data are determined with cores
in a process called special core analysis. Reservoir permeabilities and
well geometries are needed to calculate rates from individual wells.
Permeabilities are also determined from cores by use of flow tests.

12
1.2 Reservoir definition and description
Definition: Petroleum Reservoir (Conventional)

 A subsurface porous and permeable rock having commercial quantities

of oil/gas

 Typically, a sedimentary rock

 A single hydraulically connected system

 A critical component of the petroleum system

14
Components of a Petroleum System

1. Source

2. Reservoir
Gas
Oil
Seal or cap

k
roc
3.
Water

al
Se
r ce
4. Trap Souk
roc
er v oi r
e
R k s
ro c

15
Summary of principal depositional environments

(Nichols, 2009)
16
Source rocks forms from anaerobic environments with
accumulation of organic material

(Nichols, 2009)
17
Example of source rock
White River oil shale – Green River Formation

(Zerpa, PEGN 316 – Field

Session II, 2013)

18
 Petroleum forms from degradation of organic matter (kerogen)
in a process known as hydrocarbon maturation
 Kerogen consists of long-chain hydrocarbons Greater temperature results in
further breakdown of the kerogen
 Main types of kerogen:

1. Type I: consists of planktonic algae and

amorphous organic material, generates oil
100 ºF
2. Type II: consists of mixed marine and
terrestrial organic material, generates gas
and waxy oil

3. Type III: consists of terrestrial woody

organic matter, generates only gas
300 ºF

19
Reservoir rocks are porous and permeable

 Sedimentary rocks (sandstones and carbonates)

 Reservoir rocks are formed in a variety of depositional environments:

 Sandstones: eolian sands, fluvial and alluvial systems, beach sands, barrier
islands, deltas, and turbidites

 Carbonates: shallow marine environments

 Oil and gas accumulations occur within pore spaces of sedimentary

rocks
20
Sandstones form in high-energy depositional environments
Eolian sands Fluvial and alluvial systems Deltas

Beach sands Barrier islands Turbidites

(Nichols, 2009)
21
Carbonates form in shallow marine environments from
deposition of skeletal material of marine organisms

Limestone beds formed

Coral reef
by a carbonate platform

22
Seal or cap rock has low to zero permeability

 Cap rocks: well-cemented lithologies, mudrock and evaporite beds

 Type of seals: top, bottom, lateral and faults

Fault seal Top

s ea
Res l
e r v oi
Fluid-flow r
B ot t
barrier Top seal om
s ea
l Lateral
Reservoir seal

Bottom seal
Aquifer

23
Example of bottom seal rock

Fluvial Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group

Sandstone
(reservoir rock)

Mudstone
(seal rock)

(Zerpa, PEGN 316 – Field Session II, 2013)

24
 Hydrocarbon traps prevent further upward migration
 Structural traps: closures formed by
 Stratigraphic traps: closures formed by
structural movement within the Earth sedimentation and diagenesis

Listric fault Graben and Basin-floor sand lobe Carbonate buildup

Anticline horst block

Piercement-dome
Complex faulted • Structural/stratigraphic traps:
Thrust-fault
Updip Unconformity Stratigraphic onlap
sedimentary/diagenetic

25
1.3 Classification of petroleum
reservoirs
Petroleum reservoirs can be classified as follows:

 Based on the fluids they contain

 Based on the type of hydrocarbon trap
 Based on the primary drive mechanism
 Based on conventional or unconventional

27
Petroleum reservoir classification based on the fluids they contain

 Gas reservoirs
 Dry gas: hydrocarbons will always be in the vapor phase from reservoir to surface
 Wet gas: hydrocarbons will be in the vapor phase at reservoir, some liquids condense out
at surface
 Retrograde-condensate: Some liquids condense out at reservoir, reducing amount of
liquids at surface
 Oil reservoirs
 Undersaturated-oil: No free gas present at reservoir
 Saturated-oil: Can have a free gas cap at reservoir

28
 Reservoir classification based on the type of hydrocarbon trap
 Structural traps: closures formed by
 Stratigraphic traps: closures formed by
structural movement within the Earth sedimentation and diagenesis

Listric fault Graben and Basin-floor sand lobe Carbonate buildup

Anticline horst block

Piercement-dome
Complex faulted • Structural/stratigraphic traps:
Thrust-fault
Updip Unconformity Stratigraphic onlap
sedimentary/diagenetic

29
Reservoir classification based on the primary drive mechanism

 Solution gas drive

 Expansion of oil and originally dissolved gas
 Gas cap drive
 Expansion of free gas
 Natural water drive
 Expansion of aquifer water with influx into reservoir displacing hydrocarbon fluids
 Compaction drive
 Pore volume contraction, reduces porosity, forcing fluids out of pore space
 Gravity drainage
 Oil drains downdip from gas cap, gas migrate updip from oil column
 Combinations drive

30
Reservoir classification based on conventional or unconventional

 A conventional petroleum reservoir is defined as subsurface porous and permeable rock

having commercial quantities of oil/gas. Typically, a sedimentary rock, which is a single
hydraulically connected system, and a critical component of the petroleum system

 An unconventional petroleum reservoir are hydrocarbon accumulations widespread

throughout a large area. This reservoirs are not affected by hydrodynamic influences in
terms of buoyant forces and influence of water column surrounding the hydrocarbon
accumulation. The fluids in these reservoir present a low mobility either because of its high
viscosity or the rock low permeability. These reservoirs do not produce economic volumes
without assistance from massive stimulation treatments or special recovery processes and
technologies.

31
1.4 Unconventional reservoirs
Definition: Unconventional Reservoir

 Hydrocarbon accumulations widespread throughout a large area

 Not affected by hydrodynamic influences
 Buoyant forces
 Influence of water column
 Low fluid mobility (high viscosity or low permeability)
 Does not produce economic volumes without assistance from massive
stimulation treatments or special recovery processes and technologies

33
Resources triangle: petroleum volumes stored in unconventional
reservoirs are substantially higher than in conventional reservoirs

Conventional
Conventional
Small volumes easy Reservoirs Increased break-even
to develop price required
Heavy Low
Oil Tight Gas
Perm
Extra- Oil Basin-centered Gas Increased technology
Unconventional
Large volumes difficult Heavy Oil requirements
to develop
Coal Bed Methane
Bitumen
Shale Gas

Oil Shale Gas Hydrates

Oil Gas

34
Types of Unconventional Reservoirs
 Extra-Heavy Oil: density < 10º API, viscosity > 1000 cp
 Bitumen: exist as semi-solid or solid phase; density < 10º API, viscosity > 10,000 cp
 Tight Gas: permeability < 0.1 md
 Coalbed Methane: CH4 is generated during coalification, and is adsorbed in the coal

 Shale Gas: organic-rich shale formations, gas is stored in fracture porosity, within micro- or nano-pores, and
adsorbed on organic matter
 Low Permeability Oil: include tight and shale formations with accumulation of liquid hydrocarbons
 Oil Shale: fine-grained sedimentary rocks, with large amounts of organic matter from which shale oil and
shale gas can be extracted by destructive distillation
 Gas Hydrates: ice-like, crystalline structures of cages of water molecules that trap small gas molecules, at
high pressure and low temperature, as those found in permafrost and sub-seafloor regions

35
 Extra-Heavy Oil: density < 10º API, 1000 cp < viscosity < 10,000 cp

 90% of known extra-heavy oil  Reservoir Characteristics:

accumulations are in the Orinoco belt,
Venezuela  Individual sand bodies
 Thickness up to 150 ft
 OOIP = 1.3 trillion STB
 Porosity: 27 to 32%
 EUR = 235 billion STB
 Good permeability up to 5 darcies
 Cold production is achievable with  Good lateral continuity
recovery factor of 12 %OOIP

36
 Bitumen: exist as semi-solid or solid phase; density < 10º API, viscosity > 10,000 cp

 Largest known bitumen accumulations are  Reservoir Characteristics:

in western Canada (area 30,000 square  Individual sand bodies
miles)  Thickness up to 250 ft

 NTG = 80%
 OOIP = 1.7 trillion STB
 Porosity: 30 to 34%
 EUR = 170 – 300 billion STB  Permeability: 1 to 5 darcies

 Requires thermal recovery methods  Methods for estimating reserves:

(steam injection)  Volumetrics, supported by closely spaced grid core plugs

 Near surface (< 215 ft) bitumen is

 Material balance and decline curve analysis are not
applicable
recovered by open-pit mining methods
37
 Tight Gas: gas accumulations that are pervasive throughout a large area, in poor
quality reservoir rocks (k < 0.1 md)

 Tight gas in the US estimated at 5,000 Tscf  Reservoir types:

 EUR = 350 Tscf (7% TGOIP)

 Basin-centered gas accumulations

 Production methods:
 Low-permeability, poor-quality reservoir
rocks in conventional traps
 Multilateral/horizontal wells intercepting natural
fractures
 Methods for estimating reserves:

 Stimulation by hydraulic fracturing to establish  Special techniques of decline curve

commercial production analysis and material balance

38
Coalbed methane (CBM): CH4 is generated during coalification, and is
adsorbed on the coal organic matter

 Immense worldwide resources of CBM  Reservoir characteristics:

> 9,000 Tscf
 Coal acts as the source rock and the
 US largest producer of CBM reservoir

 Production methods:
 Naturally fracture reservoirs

 Extraction of water allows gas desorption from

 Methods for estimating reserves:
coal by depressurization  Adapted techniques of volumetric,
 Gas adsorbed flow through a secondary material balance, decline curve
network of fractures analysis and reservoir simulation

39
Shale Gas: organic-rich shale formations, gas is stored in fracture
porosity, within micro- or nano-pores, and adsorbed on organic matter
 Estimated technically recoverable shale  Reservoir characteristics:
gas resources in the US: 616 Tscf  Sedimentary rock made of consolidated clay-
size particles
 Shale gas represents 10% of total US gas
production  Deposited as mud in low-energy depositional
environments
 Worldwide shale gas resources in-place  Limited horizontal permeability and extremely
estimated at 16,103 Tscf limited vertical permeability

 Production methods:  Methods for estimating reserves:

 Vertical or horizontal wells hydraulically
 Decline curve analysis
fractured
 Reservoir simulation
40
Oil Shale: fine-grained sedimentary rocks; shale oil and gas can be extracted by
destructive distillation of organic matter

 Worldwide oil shale resources in-place  Reservoir characteristics:

estimated at 2.8 Tbbl  Sedimentary rock made of consolidated clay-
size particles
 Largest oil deposit is the Green River oil
shale in the western US estimated at  Deposited as mud in low-energy depositional
environments
1.5 Tbbl
 Large amounts of organic matter
 Production methods:
 Kerogen pyrolysis retort at 950 ºF to convert it
into oil and gas

 Surface mining

41
Gas Hydrates: ice-like, crystalline structures of water cages that trap gas molecules, at high
pressure and low temperature, as those found in permafrost and sub-seafloor regions

 Large gas storage capacity:  Reservoir characteristics:

1 m3 of hydrate  164 m3 gas  Unconsolidated sediments

 Worldwide methane resources in-place

estimated at 700,000 Tscf
gas High P
+ +
 Production methods: water Low T

 Depressurization, heating or inhibitor injection

 No commercial technology has been develop

water cages

42
Technology has driven the growth of tight and shale plays

43
1.5 Review of reservoir rock and fluid
properties
Properties of reservoir rock

 Porosity

 Fluid saturation

 Permeability

 Wettability

 Capillary pressure
Porosity: ratio of void space to total (bulk) volume of rock
Different packing

Vp = pore volume Cubic Orthorhombic

f = 47.6% f = 39.5%
Vb = bulk volume

Vg = grain volume Different grain contacts

Fluid saturation: fraction of pore volume occupied by a given phase (gas, oil or water)

Gas Oil Water

Since the pore volume is always occupied by any phase,

and Vg + Vo + Vw = Vp
 Permeability: capacity of rock to transmit fluid (hydraulic
conductivity)
 Permeability (k) controls directional movement and flow rate of reservoir fluids in the porous
medium

 Connected pores are required for a rock to be permeable

Δp
A
 Defined from Darcy’s Law: 𝑘 𝐴
𝑞= Δ𝑝 q
𝜇 𝐿
L
 The unit for permeability is called Darcy, and 1 Darcy is associated with a flow rate of 1 cm 3/s, across
1 cm2 area, of a fluid of 1 cP viscosity, and a pressure gradient of 1 atm per 1 cm length.
Types of permeability
 Absolute permeability (k): when porous media is 100% saturated by one phase
 Effective permeability: conductance of one fluid when medium is saturated with
more than one fluid
 It is always lower than the absolute permeability

 kg for gas, ko for oil, and kw for water

 Relative permeability: ratio of effective permeability of one phase to the absolute

permeability
 It is a function of saturation
Relative permeability: ratio of effective permeability of one phase to the absolute
permeability

Relative permeability end-points:

 Swr : residual (or irreducible)

water saturation

 krow* : oil relative permeability

at So = 1 – Swr

 Sorw : residual oil saturation

when displaced by water

 krw* : water relative

permeability at Sw = 1 - Sorw
Relative permeability: ratio of effective permeability of one phase to the absolute
permeability

Relative permeability is a function of

saturation:
Wettability: tendency of a fluid to spread on (or adhere to) a solid surface in the
presence of another immiscible fluids

Water wet Oil wet

Oil Oil
σwo Water σwo

Water θ θ
σsw σso σsw σso
Solid Solid

 Wettability of solid surfaces is determined by the contact angle

 θ < 90  water wet
 θ > 90  oil wet
 θ = 90  intermediate wet
s : interfacial energy, mN/m or dynes/cm
Fluid distribution in the porous media is a function of wettability

 Wetting phase occupies smaller pores

 Non-wetting phase occupies the more open channels

Water-wet system Oil-wet system

Water
Solid grains

Oil Oil

Water surrounds oil

and contacts rock Oil contacts rock
Capillary pressure: pressure difference across interface of two immiscible
fluids in capillaries (porous media)

Pc : capillary pressure (≥ 0, non-negative)

Pnwt : pressure in non-wetting phase

Pwt : pressure in wetting phase

 Gas is always the non-wetting phase

 Oil could be the wetting or non-wetting phase in water-oil systems
Models for capillary pressure r

 Capillary tube model:

Dh q

Capillary pressure is higher in porous with smaller radius

 Pc as function of height above

free water level:

http://www.reservoir.solutions/2014/08/capillary-pressure.html
The transition zone above the WOC of a heterogeneous reservoir can be
calculated using a dimensionless form of the capillary pressure

 Capillary pressure is a function of pore radius

 Pore radius is a function of porosity and permeability

 Pc varies with f and k

 All Pc curves for a given reservoir can be combined into one curve by use
of the Leverett J-function
Pc: psi
sow: interfacial tension, dynes/cm
q: contact angle, degrees
k: permeability, md
f: porosity, fraction

 The J-function is used to determine initial fluid distribution (Sw) in a

heterogeneous reservoir
Properties of reservoir fluids
 API gravity
 Bubble point pressure
 Formation volume factor
 Solution gas-oil ratio
 Isothermal compressibility
 Viscosity
API Gravity: specific gravity scale developed by the American Petroleum Institute
(API)

, specific gravity of the oil;

both densities are
measured at 60 ºF and
atmospheric pressure

 API gravities of crude oil usually range from 47 ºAPI for lighter oils to
10 ºAPI for heavier asphaltic crude oils

 Lower the ºAPI  heavier the oil

 For reference, water has an API gravity of 10 ºAPI

Classification of crude oils based on API gravity

Type of crude ºAPI Specific Viscosity (cP)

oil gravity
Extra Heavy
4 – 10 1.04 – 1.0 1x106 – 5000
(Bitumen)

Heavy 10 – 20 1.0 – 0.93 5000 – 100

Medium 20 – 30 0.93 – 0.88 100 – 2

Light 30 – 50 0.88 – 0.78 2 – 0.25

Condensate 50 – 70 0.78 – 0.71 0.25

Bubble Point Pressure, pb (or saturation pressure): pressure below which
the first gas bubble evolves from the liquid phase (oil)

Typical phase diagram of black oil

Oil Formation Volume Factor, Bo: volume of oil in reservoir divided by volume of oil at
surface

 Volume of oil produced at surface is

less than volume of oil at reservoir Dissolved gas
Evolution of gas as expanding
pressure decrease

pb

Data from Dake, 1999

Solution gas-oil ratio, Rs: amount of gas dissolved in oil at reservoir, expressed at standard
conditions

Saturated oil Undersaturated oil

pb

Data from Dake, 1999

Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg: volume occupied by gas at reservoir P-T divided by volume
occupied by same gas at standard conditions

 Volume of gas produced at surface is

greater than volume of gas at
reservoir Gas at reservoir
expands with
pressure decrease

 Used units vary:

 Reservoir cubic feet per standard
cubic foot  rcf/scf
 Reservoir barrels of gas per
standard cubic foot  RB/scf

Data from Dake, 1999

Real Gas Law: volume of a real gas usually is less than volume of an ideal
gas
 Ideal behavior neglects molecular size and intermolecular interactions

 Gas deviation factor (z-factor or compressibility factor): measure how much a real gas
deviates from ideal behavior

At standard conditions
At a given p and T
psc = 14.7 psia
Tsc = 60 ºF
 The real gas equation of state:
Using the real gas EOS, the gas formation volume factor, Bg, can be calculated for a given
p and T

At standard conditions
psc = 14.7 psia
Tsc = 60 ºF
Solving V from real gas law:

Then,

Simplifying,
Isothermal compressibility: fractional change in volume of a fluid as
pressure changes at constant temperature

Subscript i denotes the phase:

gas (g), oil (o), water (w), or
formation rock (f)

System Symbol Value (1/psi)

Reservoir saline water cw 3.0 × 10-6
Undersaturated oil co 17.0 × 10-6
Gas at 1450 psi cg 689.0 × 10-6
Gas at 5800 psi cg 172.0 × 10-6
Consolidated sand at 5800 psi cf 2.5 × 10-6
Unconsolidated sand at 5800 psi cf 10 × 10-6
Viscosity, μ: a measure of the resistance to flow exerted
by a fluid
Oil viscosity Gas viscosity
 For p > pb, viscosity decreases
 Viscosity increases with
pressure increasing
with pressure decreasing
 For p < pb, viscosity increases
with pressure decreasing
pb
Evolution of gas Dissolved
as pressure gas
decrease expanding

Data from McCain, 1990

1.6 Distribution of fluids and pressure
gradient calculations
Distribution of fluids in a reservoir
 Gas cap
 Oil column
 Aquifer
Gas

k
Oil
Contacts

roc


al
Water

Se
 Gas-oil
r ce
Souk
oi r roc
 Oil-water Resk
er v
ro c
Type of reservoirs based on the fluid state
 Gas reservoirs
 Dry gas: hydrocarbons will always be in the vapor phase from reservoir to surface
 Wet gas: hydrocarbons will be in the vapor phase at reservoir, some liquids condense
out at surface
 Retrograde-condensate: Some liquids condense out at reservoir, reducing amount of
liquids at surface
 Oil reservoirs
 Undersaturated-oil: No free gas present at reservoir
 Saturated-oil: Can have a free gas cap at reservoir
Reservoir pressure: makes reference to the fluids pressure
within the reservoir
 Overburden pressure: combined
weight of formation rock and fluids
above reservoir
Poverburden = Pfluids + Pgrain

 Overburden pressure remains constant

at any given depth
 If fluids pressure decreases, grain
pressure increases

 Initial reservoir pressure is related to

the hydrostatic water pressure
 Assuming continuity of water pressure to
surface and constant salinity with depth
The reservoir pressure within a phase layer can be determined from pressure
gradient information
 The pressure gradient within a phase layer is related to a fluid density and
the acceleration of gravity by:

 The pressure at a given depth can be calculated knowing the pressure at a

different depth, by integrating the pressure gradient equation above
p: pressure, psia or psig
r: density, lbm/ft3
g: 32.17 ft/s2
h: vertical depth, ft
gc: conversion factor, 32.17 lbm.ft/(lbf.s 2)

 This equation is valid when the fluid density does not change much with
pressure (like oil and water density)
Real Gas Law: volume of a real gas usually is less than volume of an ideal gas

 Ideal behavior neglects molecular size and intermolecular interactions

 Gas deviation factor (z-factor or compressibility factor): measure how much a real gas
deviates from ideal behavior

At standard conditions
At a given p and T
psc = 14.7 psia
Tsc = 60 ºF = 520 ºR

 The real gas equation of state: When using real gas EOS, use
absolute units:
p = psia
T = ºR

R = 10.732 psia.ft3/(lb-mol.ºR)
Gas density changes significantly with pressure
Gas density is defined as,
Substituting,

From the real gas Law,

Simplifying,

The mass of gas can be

expressed as,

Ma: Molecular weight of air, 28.97

gg: specific gravity of gas, rg/rair Note: remember to use absolute
units for p and T
The calculation of reservoir pressure within a gas phase layer need to
account for change in density with pressure
 The pressure gradient within a gas phase layer is,

 We can use the gas density derived using the real gas Law, and use
average values of reservoir temperature and z-factor

 Integrating  In English units

(h: ft; T: ºR, p: psia)

 In S.I. units
(h: m; T: K, p: Pa)
 Example of reservoir pressure distribution
For normal hydrostatic pressure, the water pressure
at any depth is calculated as:

2250 psig 2354 psig

Gas
GOC GOC
po = pg = 2370 psig

Oil

OWC OWC
Water pw = po = 2475 psig
Abnormal hydrostatic pressures can be encountered in a reservoir
 Overpressured reservoirs: initial pressure greater that normal hydrostatic pressure
 Underpressured reservoirs: initial pressure lower than normal hydrostatic pressure
 Reservoir rock must be sealed from surrounding strata
 Causes of abnormal reservoir pressures:
 Temperature change
 Geological changes: uplifting, surface erosion, downthrown

 Initial pressure gradients range: 0.2 – 0.9 psi/ft (normal 0.45 psi/ft)
Measurement of reservoir pressure at bottom of well

 Two types of pressures are measured:

 Bottom hole shut-in pressure: measured when the well is shut-in, approximates
reservoir pressure in new reservoirs with no pressure depletion

 Bottom hole flowing pressure: measured when the well is producing, indicates
pressure of formation fluids near the wellbore
1.7 Primary reservoir drive
mechanisms
Primary Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
 Solution gas drive
 Expansion of oil and originally dissolved gas
 Gas cap drive
 Expansion of free gas
 Natural water drive
 Expansion of aquifer water with influx into reservoir displacing hydrocarbon fluids
 Compaction drive
 Pore volume contraction, reduces porosity, forcing fluids out of pore space
 Gravity drainage
 Oil drains downdip from gas cap, gas migrate updip from oil column
 Combinations drive
Solution gas drive: expansion of oil and dissolved gas
p > pb p < pb
 Rapid pressure decline

 Low initial production GOR

 Oil production rate constantly declining

 Little or no water production

 Low oil recovery: 5 – 30% OOIP

 Gas reservoirs: high recovery,

70 – 90% OGIP
 Gas cap drive: expansion of free gas

 Slow decline of reservoir pressure

 GOR rises continuously

 Oil production rate declines

slowly and continuously

 Negligible water production

 Moderate oil recovery: 20 – 40%

OOIP
 Natural water drive: water influx from aquifer displacing oil/gas

 Pressure decline is relatively small

 Little change in production GOR

Bottom-water drive Edge-water drive
 Early water production may occur

 High oil recovery: 35 – 75% OOIP

 Gas reservoirs: gas trapped (residual

saturation) behind water front.
 Gas recovery: 50 – 70% OGIP
 Compaction drive: Pore volume contraction, reduces porosity, forcing
fluids out of pore space

 Rapid pressure decline

 High rock compressibility

 Normal values: 3 to 8 × 10-6 1/psi
 High values: > 50 × 10-6 1/psi (Nagel, 2001)

 Can lead to subsidence at surface

Subsidence at Lagunillas Field, Venezuela
http://www.panorama.com.ve/uploads/lagu(2).jpg

 Least efficient driving mechanism

Gravity drainage: Oil drains downdip from gas cap, gas migrate updip from oil
column

 Variable rate of pressure decline

Gas cap
 Low GOR for structurally low wells,
increasing GOR for high wells Gas

Oil
 Little or no water production

 Oil recovery vary widely: up to

80% OOIP
 Combinations drive: water and free gas are available to displace oil, with solution
gas drive

 Relatively rapid pressure decline

Gas cap
 GOR continuously increase
Oil

 Slowly increasing water production

for structurally low wells i fe
r
u
Aq
 Oil recovery: greater than solution
gas drive, less than water or gas cap
drive
 Summary of drive mechanisms

Drive mechanism Recovery Factor

Oil: 5 – 30%
Solution gas drive
Gas: 70 – 90%
Gas cap drive Oil: 20 – 40%
Oil: 35 -75%
Water drive
Gas: 50 – 70%
Compaction drive Least efficient
Oil: 2 – 5%
Gravity drainage Oil: 30 – 70%
Combinations drive -