Algebraic Structures(CO4)

 Algebraic Structures: A non empty set S is called algebraic structure wrt

binary operations *, if (a * b) S, for all a,b S.
 Here * is closure operations on S
 Ex: (N, + ),
 (Z, +, – )
 (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic structures

02/22/2025 1
 Operations(CO4)
 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation * is said
to be commutative in A
if a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation * is said
to be associative in A
if (a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be an
identity element of A
if a * e = e * a = a for all a ∈ A.
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an
element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of a
if a * b = b * a = e

02/22/2025 2
 Algebraic structures(CO4)
 Groupoid: Let operation * is binary operation on set G and satisfies the
closure property then the algebraic structure (G,*) is called groupoid.
 Semi Group: An algebraic structure (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Ex. (N, +) ,(z,+) are semi group.
Ex. (N, .), (z, .) are semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) , (z, -) are not semi group.
 Monoid: An algebraic structure (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
02/22/2025 3
 Monoid Example(CO4)
Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}

1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is again
a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b belongs to N
Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c belongs to N
3. Identity : We have, 1 belongs to N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a belongs to N.
Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

02/22/2025 4
 Group and Abelian group(CO4)
 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

 Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is

said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a * b = b * a a, b G.

02/22/2025 5
 Example of Abelian group(CO4)
The composition table of G is
. 1 –1 i -i
1 1 -1 i - i
-1 -1 1 -i i G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under
multiplication.
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 ∈ G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1, -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative. Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
02/22/2025 6
 Example of Abelian group(CO4)
The composition table of G is
. 1  2
1 1  2 G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
  2 1 Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity. (CO4)
2 2 1 

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements
of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2,  respectively.
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is
commutative.
02/22/2025 Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication. 7
 Sub-semigroup & Sub-monoid(CO4)
Sub-semigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a subset of S. If T is
closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of even positive integers then (T,.) is a
sub semigroup.

Sub-monoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T be a non-

empty subset of S. If T is closed and associative under the operation * and e
T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of (S, * ).

02/22/2025 8
 Sub groups(CO4)
Definition. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,
if (H, *) is a group.

Note: If G is a Group, then the subgroups consisting of G itself is the

improper subgroup of G. All other subgroups are proper subgroups.
The subgroups {e} is the trivial subgroup of G. All other subgroups are
nontrivial.
Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, 1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.

02/22/2025 9
 Sub groups(CO4)
Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) belongs to Z for all a,b belongs to Z
Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c) belongs to
(Z, *) is a semi group.
Identity : There is no integer x such that
a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a belongs to Z
Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.

02/22/2025 10
 Daily Quiz (CO4)
1. This is an abelian group { – 3^n : n ε Z } under:
A. division
B. subtraction
C. addition
D. multiplication

2. What is the inverse of – ι If G = { 1, -1, ι, – ι } is group under multiplication?

A. −1 B. ι C. 1 D. None of Above

3. The monoid is a?
A. a non-abelian group
B. groupoid
C. A group
D. a commutative group

02/22/2025 11
 Daily Quiz(CO4)

4. (ba)-1 =_____ If a, b are elements of a group G?

A. b-1 a B. a-1 b C. b-1 a-1 D. a-1 b-1

5. What is an inverse of – i in the multiplicative group if {1, – 1, i , – i} is?

A. -1 B. 1 C. I D. None of these

6. What is the value of (a-1 b)-1 is in the group (G, .)?

A. b-1 a B. ab-1 C. ba-1 D. a-1b

7. What is the inverse of a if (Z,*) is a group with a*b = a+b+1 ∀ a, b ∈Z?

A. -2 B. 0 C. -a-2 D. a-2

02/22/2025 12
 Daily Quiz(CO4)
8. An algebraic structure _________ is called a semigroup.
a) (P, *) 11. SOLUTION
b) (Q, +, *)
Identity Element = e
c) (P, +)
d) (+, *)
a*e = e*a = a
a=a+e+1
9. Condition for monoid is __________ e = -1
a) (a+e)=a
b) (a*e)=(a+e) Inverse of a is a-1
c) a=(a*(a+e) a*a-1 = e
d) (a*e)=(e*a)=a a + a-1 + 1 = -1
a-1 = -( a+2 )
10. A monoid is called a group if _______
a) (a*a)=a=(a+c)
b) (a*c)=(a+c)
c) (a+c)=a
d) (a*c)=(c*a)=e

11. What is the inverse of a, if (Z,*) is a group with a*b = a+b+1 ∀ a, b ∈Z?
A. -2 B. 0 C. -a-2 D. a-2

02/22/2025 13
 Daily Quiz(CO4)
12. A group (M,*) is said to be abelian if ___________
a) (x+y)=(y+x)
b) (x*y)=(y*x)
c) (x+y)=x
d) (y*x)=(x+y)

13. Condition for monoid is __________

a) (a+e)=a
b) (a*e)=(a+e)
c) a=(a*(a+e)
d) (a*e)=(e*a)=a

14. How many properties can be held by a group?

a) 2
b) 3
c) 5
d) 4

02/22/2025 14
 Daily Quiz(CO4)
15. A cyclic group is always _________
a) abelian group
b) monoid
c) semigroup
d) subgroup
16. {1, i, -i, -1} is __________
a) semigroup
b) subgroup
c) cyclic group
d) abelian group

17. A subgroup has the properties of ________

a) Closure, associative
b) Commutative, associative, closure
c) Inverse, identity, associative
d) Closure, associative, Identity, Inverse

02/22/2025 15
 Daily Quiz(CO4)
18. Which sentence is true?
A. Set of all matrices forms a group under multiplication
B. Set of all rational negative numbers forms a group under multiplication
C. Set of all non-singular matrices forms a group under multiplication
D. Both (b) and (c)

19. Which statement is false?

A. The set of rational integers is an abelian group under addition
B. The set of rational numbers form an abelian group under multiplication
C. The set of rational numbers is an abelian group under addition
D. None of these

20. What is the identity element In the group G = {2, 4, 6, 8) under multiplication modulo
10?
A. 5 B. 9 C. 6 D. 12

02/22/2025 16
 Theorem 1(CO4)
Theorem: If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that the
group must be abelian .
Proof: Let (G, *) be a group. If a is an element of the group then inverse of a
is also a. That means, a-1 =a.
Let a and b are any two elements of G. we can write that the product of a and
b should also be equal to its inverse.
So we will proceed as:
(a . b) = (a . b)-1 = b-1 . a-1
 (a . b) = b . a (since, b-1 =b and a-1 =a)
Hence, a . b = b . a, And so G is abelian.

02/22/2025 17
 Theorem 2 (CO4)
Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset H
of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a  H, b  H  a * b-1  H.

Proof:
Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of
G
Let a, b  H  b-1  H ( since H is a group)
 a * b-1  H. ( By closure property in H)
Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1  H  a, b  H
Now, a * a-1  H ( Taking b = a )
 eH i.e., identity exists in H.

02/22/2025 18
 Continue…(CO4)

Now, e  H, a  H  e * a-1  H
 a-1  H
 Each element of H has inverse in H.
Further, a  H, b  H  a  H, b-1  H
 a * (b-1)-1  H.
 a * b  H.
 H is closed w.r.t * .
Finally, Let a, b, c  H
 a, b, c  G ( since H  G )
 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
 * is associative in H
Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

02/22/2025 19
 Theorem 3(CO4)
Theorem :In a group (G, *), if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2 a , b  G then show
that G is abelian group.

Proof: Given that (a * b)2 = a2 * b2

 (a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a )* (b * b)
 a *( b * a )* b = a * (a * b) * b ( By associative law)
 ( b * a )* b = (a * b) * b ( By left cancellation law)
 ( b * a ) = (a * b) ( By right cancellation law)
Hence, G is abelian group.

Note: a2 = a * a
a3 = a * a * a etc.

02/22/2025 20
 Modulo systems(CO4)
Addition modulo m ( +m )
let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
a +m b = r if a + b  m where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (a+b) with m.
Multiplication modulo p ( p )
let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a p b = a b if a b < p
a p b = r if a b  p where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (ab) with p.
Ex. 3 5 4 = 2 , 5 5 4 = 0 , 2 5 2 = 4

02/22/2025 21
 Addition Modulo (+m ) (CO4)

The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.

The composition table of G is
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under + 6 .

02/22/2025 22
 Continue.. (CO4)
2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 + 6 1 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The
element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 0, 1,
2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation + 6 is commutative.
Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.

02/22/2025 23
 Multiplication Modulo (m ) (CO4)
The set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo 7.

The composition table of G is

7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under 7 .

02/22/2025 24
 Continue…(CO4)
2. Associativity: The binary operation 7 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 7 3) 7 4 = 6 7 4 = 3 and
2 7 ( 3 7 4 ) = 2 7 5 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The
element heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1, 2, 3, 4,
5 ,6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation 7 is commutative.
Hence, (G, 7 ) is an abelian group.

02/22/2025 25
 Order(CO4)
 Order of an element of a group:
Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The smallest integer n such that
an = e is called order of ‘a’. If no such number exists then the order is infinite.
 Order of group:
The number of elements in a group is called order of group.
 Ex: Group of order 1, 2 and 3
 G = {1, -1, i, -i} is a group w.r.t multiplication of order 4.
 G = ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, +6) is a group of order 6.
 G = {1, w, w2} is a group. Find order of its elements.

02/22/2025 26
 Order(CO4)
 Cyclic group:
 Cyclic groups are groups in which every element is an integral power of some
fixed element.
 A group G is called cyclic if for some element a belongs to G, every element is
of the form an where n is some integer.
 G = {an :n belongs to Z}
 and, G = [a], The element a is called a generator.
 If order of group and order of any element of that group is equal then that
element will be the generator of that group.
 Cyclic groups are Abelian.
 If a is the generator of Cyclic group G then a -1 is also the generator of group G.
 For an infinite cyclic group, there can be two and only two generators.

02/22/2025 27
 Homomorphism and Isomorphism(CO4)
Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )
A function f : G  G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b) a , b 
G and f(a), f(b)  G1

Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is a bijection then f is called

isomorphism between G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1

02/22/2025 28
 Example of Homomorphic group(CO4)
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be
a group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show
that the mapping f : R+  R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x 
R is an isomorphism.

Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.

Let a , b  R+ .
Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
= log10 a + log10 b
= f(a) + f(b)
 f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.

02/22/2025 29
 Continue…(CO4)
For any a , b  R+ , Let, f(a) = f(b)
 log10 a = log10 b
 a = b
 f is one.to-one.
Next, take any c  R +.
Then 10c  R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.
 Every element in R has a pre image in R+ .
i.e., f is onto.
 f is a bijection.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.

02/22/2025 30
 Theorem for Homomorphism(CO4)
Theorem: Consider the groups ( G1, *) and ( G2, ) with identity
elements e1 and e2 respectively. If f : G1  G2 is a group
homomorphism, then prove that

a) f(e1) = e2

b) f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1

c) If H1 is a sub group of G1 and H2 = f(H1),

then H2 is a sub group of G2.

d) If f is an isomorphism from G1 onto G2,

then f –1 is an isomorphism from G2 onto G1.

02/22/2025 31
 Proof(CO4)
 a) Let a  G1, then a*e1 = a = e1*a
 f(a*e1) = f(a) = f(e1*a)
 f(a)  f(e1)= f(a) = f(e1)  f(a) [ since f is homomorphism]
 f(e1) is the identity in G1  f(e1) = e2
Therefore, the image of the identity of G1 under the group morphism f is the identity of G2

 b) Let a-1 be the inverse of any a  G1, then

 a * a-1 = e1 = a-1 * a
 f (a * a-1) = f(e1) = f (a-1 * a)
f(a)  f(a-1) = f(e1) = f(a-1)  f(a)
and f(a)  f(a-1) = e2 = f(a-1)  f(a)
 f(a-1) is the inverse of f(a) in G2
i.e., [f(a)]-1 = f(a-1)

02/22/2025 32
 Continue…(CO4)
 c) H2 = f (H1) is the image of H1 under f; this is a subset of G2.
Let x , y  H2.
Then x = f(a) , y = f(b) for some a, b H1
Since, H1 is a subgroup of G1, we have a * b-1  H1.
Consequently,
x  y-1 = f(a)  [f(b)]-1
= f(a)  f(b-1)
= f (a * b-1) f(H1) = H2
Hence, H2 is a subgroup of G2.

02/22/2025 33
 Continue…(CO4)
 d) Since f : G1  G2 is an isomorphism, f is a bijection.
 f –1 : G2  G1 exists and is a bijection.
Let x, y  G2. Then x  y  G2
and there exists a, b  G1 such that x = f(a) and y =
f(b).
 f –1 (x  y ) = f –1 (f(a)  f(b) )
= f –1 (f (a* b ) )
= a*b
= f –1 (x) * f –1 (y)
This shows that f –1 : G2  G1 is an homomorphism as
well.
 f –1 is an isomorphism.

02/22/2025 34
 Cosets(CO4)
• If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set
Ha = { h * a, h  H} is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly, aH = {a * h, h  H} is called a left coset of H is G.
• The index of H in G, denoted [G : H], is equal to the number of left cosets of H in G.
• Note:-
1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.

2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a partition of G.

i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is equal to G.

3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group is a divisor
of the order of the group.

4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group in particular am = e

5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.

02/22/2025 35
 Cosets (CO4)
• Question 1 : Let G = {….. -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…..} under addition, H
= {….. -9, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9,…..}
• Find left and right cosets.

• Solution :
• H + 0 = {….. -9, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9,…..}
• H + 1 = {….. -8, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, 10,…..}
• H + 2 = {….. -7, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, 11,…..}
• H + 3 = {….. -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12…..} = H
• H + 4 = {….. -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13…..} = H + 1
• H, H + 1, H + 2 are three distinct right cosets.
Because G is an abelian Group.
Therefore, H, 1 + H , 2 + H are left cosets of H in G.

02/22/2025 36
 State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem(CO4)
Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite group G
is a divisor of the order of the group.

Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.

Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
 O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
= r . O(H)
This shows that O(H) divides O(G).

02/22/2025 37
 Normal Subgroup(CO4)
• Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for
all h∈ H and x∈ G, x h x-1∈ H
• If x H x-1 = {x h x-1| h ∈ H} then H is normal in G if and only if xHx -1⊆H, ∀ x∈ G
• Normal subgroups are also known as invariant subgroups or self-conjugate
subgroup.
• A subgroup H of a group G is known as normal subgroup of G if every left coset
of H in G is equal to the corresponding right coset of H in G. That is, gH=Hg for
every g ∈ G .
• The normal subgroup is often denoted by using the symbol ► or◄. That is,
if N is a normal subgroup of G or N is normal in G, then it is denoted as N◄G.
• Quotient Group: A quotient group or factor group is a group obtained by
aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that
preserves some of the group structure. It is denoted by Z/pZ, where p is an
Integer.
• Quotient group is not a subgroup of G
02/22/2025 38
 Ring(CO4)
Let <R, +, .> be an algebraic structure for a nonempty set R and two binary operations
+ and . defined on it.
An algebraic structure (R, +, .) is called ring if the following conditions are satisfied.
• (R,+) is an abelian group
• (R, .) is a semigroup
• The operation . is distributive over the operation + in R.
a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(a + b) . c = (a . c) + (b . c) for all a, b, c  R.
• The operation + is commutative and associative.
a + b = b + a, for all a, b  R.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, for all a, b, c  R.
• There exists the identity element 0 in R w.r.t. +.
a + 0 = 0 + a = a, for every a  R.
• Every element in R is invertible w.r.t. +.
With every a  R there exists in R its inverse element, denoted by (–a).
a + (–a) = (–a) + a = 0.

02/22/2025 39
 Ring(CO4)
• The operation . is associative
a . ( b. c) = (a . b) . c for all a, b, c  R.

• The operation . is distributive over the operation + in R.

a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(a + b) . c = (a . c) + (b . c) for all a, b, c  R.

02/22/2025 40
 Zero ring(CO4)
The zero ring is the unique ring in which the additive identity 0 and multiplicative
identity 1 coincides.

Or

The Set R consist of single element 0 with two compositions (+) and (X) is defined
as 0+0 = 0 and 0X0 =0.

• The zero ring is commutative.

• The element 0 in the zero ring is a unit, serving as its own multiplicative inverse.
• The unit group of the zero ring is the trivial group {0}.
• The element 0 in the zero ring is not a zero divisor.
• It is also called Null ring or Zero ring or Trivial ring.

02/22/2025 41
 Ring with Unity(CO4)
If in a ring there exist(not mandatory) an element denoted by 1 such that
1.a=a.1 for all a  R then R is called Ring with unity element.

Examples

1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

02/22/2025 42
 Commutative Ring(CO4)
If the operation . Is commutative in a ring <R, +, .>.
a.b=b.a , for all a,b  R

Examples:
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <mZ, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

(Where m is prime number)

02/22/2025 43
 Ring without Unity(CO4)

A ring R which does not contain multiplicative identity is called a ring without
unity.
Example

A = { …....-6,-4 -2,0,2,4,6…….}

Finite and Infinite ring:

If number of elements in the ring R is finite then (R,+,.) is called finite ring
otherwise it is called an infinite ring.
Order of ring :The number of elements in a finite ring R is called order of ring R .It
is denoted by 0(R)
Invertible ring : Let (R,+,.) be ring with unity ,an element a  R is said to be
invertible , if there exist an element b is called the inverse of a such that
a.b =b.a =1

02/22/2025 44
 Ring with Zero divisor(CO4)

Ring with zero divisor:

If the product of non zero elements of R is zero.
a.b= 0  a and b are not zero
R={0,1,2,3,4,5}
(R, +6, 6)

Ring without zero divisor:

a.b= 0  a=0 or b=0

(z,+,x)

02/22/2025 45
 Example of Rings(CO4)
1) Let S = {0, 1} and the operations + and . on s be defined by the following tables:

+ 0 1 . 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1

Show that <S, +, .> is a commutative ring with unity.

02/22/2025 46
 Example of Rings(CO4)
2) Let S = {a, b, c, d} and the operations + and . on s be defined by the following
tables:
+ a b c d . a b c d
a a b c d a a a a a
b b a d c b a a b a
c c d b a c a b c d
d d c a b d a a d a

Show that <S, +, .> is a ring.

02/22/2025 47
 Field(CO4)
A field is a set with the two binary operations of addition and multiplication, both
of which operations are :
1. commutative
2. associative
3. contain identity elements
4. contain inverse elements.
The identity element for addition is 0, and the identity element for multiplication is
1. Given x, the inverse element for addition is -x, and the multiplicative inverse
element for multiplication is 1/x (x ≠ 0). Furthermore, multiplication distributes
over addition.
One example is the field of rational numbers Q, that is all numbers q such that
for integers a and b, q=a/b where b ≠ 0. The definition of a field applies to this
number set. We also note that the set of real numbers R is also a field (see Example
1). Since Q⊂R (the rational numbers are a subset of the real numbers), we can say
that Q is a subfield of R. Alternatively we can say that R is an extension of Q.

02/22/2025 48
 MCQs(CO4)
1. In a group there must be only __________ element.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 5
2. _____ is the multiplicative identity of natural numbers.
a) 0
b) -1
c) 1
d) 2
3. The set of even natural numbers, {6, 8, 10, 12,..,} is closed under addition operation.
Which of the following properties will it satisfy?
a) closure property
b) associative property
c) symmetric property
d) identity property
4. If (M, *) is a cyclic group of order 73, then number of generator of G is equal to ______
a) 89 b) 23 c) 72 d) 17

02/22/2025 49
 MCQs(CO4)
5. A group G, ({0}, +) under addition operation satisfies which of the following properties?
a) identity, multiplicity and inverse
b) closure, associativity, inverse and identity
c) multiplicity, associativity and closure
d) inverse and closure

6. Let G be a finite group with two sub groups M & N such that |M|=56 and |N|=123.
Determine the value of |M⋂N|.
a) 1
b) 56
c) 14
d) 78

7. Let * be the binary operation on the rational number given by a*b=a+b+ab. Which of the
following property does not exist for the group?
a) closure property
b) identity property
c) symmetric property
d) associative property
02/22/2025 50
 MCQs(CO4)
8. Consider the binary operations on X, a*b = a+b+4, for a, b ∈ X. It satisfies the properties
of _______
a) abelian group
b) semigroup
c) multiplicative group
d) isomorphic group

9. If x * y = x + y + xy then (G, *) is _____________

a) Monoid
b) Abelian group
c) Commutative semigroup
d) Cyclic group

10. A function defined by f(x)=2*x such that f(x+y)=2x+y under the group of real numbers,
then ________
a) Isomorphism exists
b) Homomorphism exists
c) Heteromorphic exists
d) Association exists
02/22/2025 51
 MCQs(CO4)
11. A function f:(M,∗)→(N,×) is a homomorphism if ______
a) f(a, b) = a*b
b) f(a, b) = a/b
c) f(a, b) = f(a)+f(b)
d) f(a, b) = f(a)*f(a)

12. Condition of semigroup homomorphism should be ____________

a) f(x * x) = f(x * y)
b) f(x) = f(y)
c) f(x) * f(y) = f(y)
d) f(x * y) = f(x) * f(y)

13. The set of rational numbers form an abelian group under _________
a) Association
b) Closure
c) Multiplication
d) Addition

02/22/2025 52
 MCQs(CO4)
14. If F is a free semigroup on a set S, then the concatenation of two even words is
________
a) a semigroup of F
b) a subgroup of F
c) monoid of F
d) cyclic group of F

15. The set of odd and even positive integers closed under multiplication is ________
a) a free semigroup of (M, ×)
b) a subsemigroup of (M, ×)
c) a semigroup of (M, ×)
d) a subgroup of (M, ×)

16. If a * b = a such that a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ b = a and (a * b) * c = a * b = a then ________

a) * is associative
b) * is commutative
c) * is closure
d) * is abelian
02/22/2025 53
 Weekly Assignment

1. Let (G, *) be a group, where * is usual multiplication operation on G. Then show

that for any x, y ∈G following equations holds: (x-1)-1 = x (xy)-1 = y-1x-1
2. Define rings and write its properties.
3. Write the properties of Group. Show that the set(1,2,3,4,5)is not group under
addition and multiplication modulo 6.
4. Define rings and fields
5. Show that (R – {1}, *) where the operation is defined as a*b = a +b –ab is an
abelian group.
6. Let G = (Z2, +) be a group and let H be a subgroup of G where H = {(x, y) | x = y}.
Find the left cosets of H in G. Here Z is the set of integers
7. Let u8 = {1, 3, 5, 7} be a group with binary operation multiplication modulo 8. Find
all proper subgroups of u8.
8. Prove that (R, +, *) is a ring without zero divisors, where R is 2×2 matrix and +
and * are usual addition and multiplication operations.

02/22/2025 54
 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and
Online Courses Details (CO4)

Youtube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQ4wU0k7JKI&list=PL0862D1A9472
52D20&index=35
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urd468CJCcU&list=PL0862D1A94725
2D20&index=36
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB6CP1RUvgk&list=PL0862D1A947
252D20&index=37
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDQhErltWUg

NEPTEL video link:

• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/105/111105112/

02/22/2025 55
 Old Question Papers
1. Define rings and write its properties.
2. Write the properties of Group. Show that the set(1,2,3,4,5)is not group under addition
and multiplication modulo 6.
3. Define rings and fields.
4. Show that (R – {1}, *) where the operation is defined as a*b = a +b –ab is an abelian
group.
5. Let G = (Z2, +) be a group and let H be a subgroup of G where H = {(x, y) | x = y}.
Find the left cosets of H in G. Here Z is the set of integers
6. Let (G, *) be a group, where * is usual multiplication operation on G. Then show that
for any x, y ∈G following equations holds:(x -1)-1 = x and (xy)-1 = y-1x-1
7. Let u8 = {1, 3, 5, 7} be a group with binary operation multiplication modulo 8. Find all
proper subgroups of u8.
8. Prove that (R, +, *) is a ring without zero divisors, where R is 2×2 matrix and + and *
are usual addition and multiplication operations.
For more Previous year Question papers:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1xmt08wjuxu71WAmO9Gxj2iDQ0lQf-so1

02/22/2025 56
 Expected Questions for University Exam

1. Write the properties of Group. Show that the set(1,2,3,4,5)is not group under addition and
multiplication modulo 6.
2. Define rings and fields.
3. Show that (R – {1}, *) where the operation is defined as a*b = a +b –ab is an abelian
group.
4. Let G = (Z2, +) be a group and let H be a subgroup of G where H = {(x, y) | x = y}. Find the
left cosets of H in G. Here Z is the set of integers.
5. Show that every cyclic group is abelian.
6. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.
7. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that the group must be abelian .
8. Show that G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication. Where 1, , 2 are cube
roots of unity.
9. If A has 4 elements B has 8 then find minimum amd maximum elements in AUB.
10. Prove that (R, +, *) is a ring with zero divisors, where R is 2×2 matrix and + and * are
usual addition and multiplication operations.

02/22/2025 57
 Thank You

02/22/2025 58