Discrete

Structures
CSCE 121
Chapter 1: Logic
Abdullah Marian
Department of Information and Computer Science
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 Logic
 The rules of logic are used to distinguish between
valid and invalid mathematical arguments(proof).

 These rules are used in the design of computer

circuits, the construction of computer programs, and
the verification of the correctness of programs.

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 Logic
 Topics
1. Propositional logic.
2. Propositional Equivalence.
3. Predicates and Quantifiers.
4. Nested Quantifiers.

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
• Definition: A proposition is a declarative statement that
can be either true or false
• Example: examples for proposition are
– “Riyad is a capital of KSA.”
– “Ali is a professor.”
– “3 = 2 + 1”
– “3 = 2 + 2”
• Not propositions:
– Sit down!
– “x +1= 2” (either true or false).
– What time is it? (not declarative sentence)
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 Logic

Propositions Logic
We use propositional variables to refer to propositions.
Usually are lower case letters starting with p (i.e. p, q,r etc.)
A propositional variable can have one of two values: true
(T) or false (F)
Example:
p = “7 is a prime number”
– q = “Today is my exam”

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
 Many mathematical statements are constructed by
combining one or more propositions. New propositions,
called compound propositions.
Compound propositions are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.
A truth table is a listing of all possible combinations of the
individual proposition statement as true or false, along with
the resulting truth value of the compound statements.

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compound propositions
⚫Negation ¬ (Uniary)
Logical Operators:

⚫Conjunction 𝖠 (Binary) and

⚫Disjunction ∨ or
⚫Implication → if then
⚫Biconditional ↔ if and only

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Truth Table

P p q p q r
T T T T T T
F T F T T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(1) Logical operators: Not
Definition: For the proposition p, the negation is the opposite
of the truth value of p and denote by ¬ p.
p p
 The negation of p read “not p”. T F
F T
 Examples: “Today is Sunday”
p = “Today is Sunday”
p = “Today is not Sunday”
 q=Rakan’s PC runs Linux
q = Rakan’s PC does not run Linux

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(2) Logical operators: And (conjunction)
Definition: For propositions p and q ,the conjunction of p and
q is true if both operands are true and is false otherwise.
 The conjunction of p and q denoted by p ^ q p q pq
T T T
and read “p and q”.
 Example: Today is Sunday and today is my T F F
exam. F T F
 p=Today is Sunday, F F F
It is true only when
q = today is my exam it is Sunday and it
. is my exam
p^q
 In some times, we used “ But “instead of AND.
 Example: The sun is shining but it is raining .
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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(3) Logical operators: Or (disjunction)
Definition: For propositions p and q, the disjunction of p and
q is false when both operands are false and is true otherwise.
 The disjunction of p and q denoted by p q pq
p  q and read “p or q”. T T T
 Examples: Today is the lecture of ICS T F T
251 or ICS 252. F T T
 p=Today is the lecture of ICS 251, F F F
q = the lecture of ICS 252
pq

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(4) Logical operators: Exclusive Or
Definition: For propositions p and q, the exclusive or of p
and q is true if exactly one of p and q is true and is false
otherwise. p q pq
 The exclusive or of p and q denoted by p  T T F
T F T
q or p XOR q and read “p exclusive or q”.
F T T
Prov F F F
 pq  (p  q)  ¬(p  q)
e
One of p and q
To exclude both
is true (may be
(p and q) are true
both)

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(4) Logical operators: Exclusive Or
 Examples: Today is Sunday or today is my exam, but not
both.
 Today is Sunday, today is my exam, not both
 p =Today is Sunday, q = today is my exam,
 p  q = Today is Sunday or today is my exam
 ¬(p  q) = but not both
 pq  (p  q)  ¬(p  q)

 HW: convert the following statement.

(1) take the blue ball or red one but not both.
(2) A person can be either Male or Female but not the both. 13
 Logic

Inclusive Or versus Exclusive Or

Do these sentences mean inclusive or
exclusive or?
1. Experience with C++ or Java is required
2. Lunch includes soup or salad
3. To enter the country, you need a passport or
a driver’s license
4. Coffee or tea comes with dinner.
5. you can pay using U.S dollars or euros.

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(5) Conditional operator: if then (implication) (→)
Definition: For propositions p and q, the conditional
statement of p → q is false when p is true and q is false,
and true otherwise. p q pq
 The implication of p and q denoted by p → q T T T
and read “if p then q”. T F F
• p implies q
F T T
• If p, q
• p only if q F F T
• p is sufficient for q
• q if p
• q whenever p
• q is necessary for p 15
 Logic

Propositions Logic
(5) Conditional operator: if then (implication) (→)
 Example : “If today is Sunday, then today is my
exam”
p → q
 If you get 90% on the final, then you will get an
A.
p → q

p→q =¬p q
The hypothesis The conclusion
(antecedent) (consequence)

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(5) Conditional operator: if then (implication) (→)
 Example : Let p = “Tariq do hard at study” and q =
“Tariq will get high mark”. Convert these statements
using if then.

 The state: p  q = “If Tariq do hard at study, he will

get high mark”

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(5) Conditional operator: if then (implication) (→)

We can form new conditional statements

starting with a conditional statement. There
are three related statements with special
.names

Conditional Inverse Converse Contrapositive

p q p q pq pq qp qp
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(5) Conditional operator: if then (implication) (→)
 Example : Let “if it is raining, then the home
team wins””. Find the converse , contrapositive , and
inverse of p → q.
 Sol: p= it is raining & q= the home team wins
 The converse of p → q is q → p
“if the home team wins, then it is
raining”
 The contrapositive of p → q is ¬q → ¬p
“if the home team not win, then it is not raining”
or
“if it is raining, then the home team wins”(original
statement) 19
Converse ,contrapositive and inverse ex:
⚫ From p →q we can form new conditional statements .
⚫ q →p is the converse of p →q
⚫ ¬q → ¬ p is the contrapositive of p →q
⚫¬p→¬q is the inverse of p →q
Example: Find the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive of “It is raining a sufficient condition for
me not going to town.”
Solution: p=it is raining , q=I am not going to town.
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not
raining.

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(6) Conditional operator: Bi-conditional ()
Definition: For propositions p and q, a bi-conditional
statement p ↔ q, is true when p and q have the same truth
value and is false Otherwise. p q p↔q

 The bi-conditional of p and q denoted by p T T T

 q and read “p if and only if q ” or T F F
“(if p then q) and (if q then p)” F T F
p→q and q→p F F T
 Note that a bi-conditional has the opposite
truth values of the exclusive or.

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
(6) Conditional operator: Bi-conditional ()
Example : Let p = “You take this class” and q = “You
get a grade”
Then pq is
“You take this class if and only if you get a grade” or
“If you take this class, then you get a grade and if you
get a grade then you take (took) this class”
 let the p is ” you can take A+” and q is “your marks
grater than or equal to 95”
 Then pq is
“ You can take A+ if and only if your marks
grater than
or equal to 95” 22
 Logic

Propositions Logic
Boolean operators summary

Not p Not q and or xor conditional Bi-conditional

p q p q pq pq pq pq pq
T T F F T T F T T
T F F T F T T F F
F T T F F T T T F
F F T T F F F T T

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q1) Determine whether the following statements is
propositional or not (give reason). If the statement
is propositional then determine the value of this
propositional statement.
1) 5 + 2 = 8. (Yes. F)

2) It is raining today. (NO. either T or F)

3) How are you? (No, a question is not a proposition, “what time

is it”)

4) x + 5 = 3 (No, since x is not specified, neither

true nor false)

5) 2 is a prime number. (Yes, T)

6) X+1=2 (No, neither True nor false)

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q2) What is the negation of each of these
proposition?
1) Today is Thursday.
2) There is no pollution in New Jersey.
3) 2+1=3.
4) The summer in Main is hot and sunny.
Q3) Let p and q be the propositions
p: I bought a lottery ticket this week.
q: I won the million dollar jackpot on Friday.
Express each of these propositions as English
sentence. 25
 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q4) Given :
p = “It is below freezing”
q = “It is snowing”
Write the following propositions using p and q and
logical connections.
1) It is below freezing and it is snowing pq
2) It is below freezing but not snowing p¬q
3) It is not below freezing and it is not snowing
¬p¬q
4) It is either snowing or below freezing (or pq
both)
5) If it is below freezing, it is also snowing p→q
6) It is either below freezing or it is snowing,(pq)(p→¬q)
but it is not snowing if it is below freezing
7) That it is below freezing is necessary and
p↔q
8) sufficient for it to be snowing
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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q5) Let “I go to the beach whenever it is a sunny
summer day”. Find the converse , contrapositive
, and inverse of p → q.

Q6) Determine whether these bi-conditionals are

true or false.
a) 2+2=4 if and only if 1+1=2
b) 1+1=2 if and only if 2+3=5
c) 1+1=3 if and only if monkeys can fly.
d) 0>1 if and only if 2>1
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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q7) Determine whether these conditionals are
true or false.
a) If 1+1=2, then 2+2=5 (false)
b) If 1+1=3, then 2+2=4 (true)
c) If 1+1=3, then 2+2=5 (true)

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 Logic

Propositions Logic
Questions
Q8) Translate the following statements to
propositions using p and q and logical connections.
a) I have neither given nor received help on this
exam.
b) You can access the Internet from campus only if
you are a computer science major or you are not
a freshman.
c) p You
Let cannot
= “I have rideonthe
given help this rolleracoaster
 (c   f)
if you are
exam”under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16
Let q = “I have received help on
years old.
this exam” (f   s)   r
¬p¬q r  ( f  s)
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Precedence of operators
Just as in algebra, operators have precedence
4+3*2 = 4+(3*2), not (4+3)*2
Precedence order (from highest to lowest):
¬→↔
The first three are the most important
This means that p  q  ¬r → s ↔ t
yields: (p  (q  (¬r)) → s) ↔ (t)
Not is always performed before any other
operation

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Bit Operations
Computer representation of True and False
:We need to encode two values True and False
Computers represents data and programs using 0s and 1s •
Logical truth values – True and False •
:A bit is sufficient to represent two possible values •
or 1(True) )False( 0 –
A variable that takes on values 0 or 1 is called a Boolean •

.variable
.Definition: A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits •
.The length of this string is the number of bits in the string

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 Bit Operations
T and F replaced with 1 and 0

p q p^q p˅q
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0

:Examples
10110011 10110011 10110011
01101010 01101010 ^ 01101010 ˅
11011001 00100010 11111011

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