Lesson 2 A

1
 Twisted pair

Introduction
When a telephone conversation takes place between two
people or subscribers, the two telephone instruments are
connected to each other via telephone exchange equipment
by metallic conductors referred to as telephone wires or
cables.
These facilities which act as conductors including their
supporting and protecting facilities are referred to as Line
Plant. 2
 Twisted pair Cont’d

Cables and insulated wires are used as conductors.

Poles, pole fittings and insulators are referred to as
supporting facilities whilst, conduits, manholes,
cabinets are used for the protection of the underground
line plant.

The two metallic conductors of the same size and

material used to transmit signals from one point to the
other, as a single pair is referred to as an unshielded
twisted pair (UTP). 3
 Twisted pair Cont’d

Definition
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires
that are typically 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick or about 1 mm
thick if insulation is included. These two wires are
twisted together to reduce external electrical
interference and interference from one pair to another
in the same cable. The twisted pair is symmetrical and
the difference in voltage (or to be more accurate,
electromagnetic wave) between these two wires
contains the transmitted signal 4
 Twisted pair Cont’d

UTP Aerial cable shown on top and an ordinary UTP at the bottom .

5
 Twisted pair cont’d

Twisted-pair cables are often shielded (STP) in an attempt

to prevent electromagnetic interference. Shielding provides
an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate
electromagnetic waves external to the shield, and provides a
conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated
and returned to the source, via ground reference connection.

6
Structure of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable

7
 UTP Cont’d

This cable consists of annealed copper conductors insulated

by color coded Polyethylene, the conductors available in
different diameter gauges which are 0.4 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.63
mm and 0.9 mm. The conductors are twisted together to
form pairs which can be further formed to make units. Each
unit consists of 25 pairs and the units are arranged in layers.
The units can be identified by the color of the
combiner/lapping tape or ribbons. Within the cable the
units are laid up in any of the following formations or a 8

combination of them:
 UTP Cont’d

a) Singly in complete 25 pair units

b) Multi layered in multiple 25 pair units that are identified
by color coded or numbered ribbons.
c) Double units consisting of two 12 pair sub units and two
13 pair sub units, (2 blue and 2 orange) formed to
create a 50pair unit
d) Quadruple units consisting of four single 25 pair units
(blue, orange, green, brown) formed into a 100pair 9

unit.
 UTP Cont’d
Pai ‘A’ WIRE (Ring) ‘B’ WIRE (Tip)
r PRIMARY SECONDARY
1 White Blue
2 White Orange
3 White Green
4 White Brown
5 White Grey
6 Red Blue
7 Red Orange
8 Red Green
9 Red Brown
10 Red Grey
11 Black Blue
12 Black Orange
13 Black Green
14 Black Brown
15 Black Grey
16 Yellow Blue
17 Yellow Orange
18 Yellow Green
19 Yellow Brown
20 Yellow Grey
21 Violet Blue
22 Violet Orange
23 Violet Green 10
24 Violet Brown
25 Violet Grey
Pair ‘A’ WIRE (Ring) ‘B’ WIRE (Tip)
Unit and group cable identifications

11
Cont’d

12
 Construction of cables (UTP)
Several types and sizes of cables are used.
All cables regardless of type and size, has three basic
parts:
i. The wire – Annealed copper wire of light gauge is
generally used because it is a good conductor of
electricity.
ii. The insulation – an insulating material is a substance
which does not conduct electricity. It offers
extremely high resistance to current flow thus its used
to insulate wires from each other and the sheath.
III. Sheath (Polyethylene and polyvinyl Chloride) is used for
both the sheath and insulation. 13
 Cable optimized for the application

Communication cable can either be hanged from

poles, buried underground, pulled/drawn in
ducts/conduits as well as be submerged under
water.
Conduit cable: pulling tension and moisture
resistant.
Buried cable: resisting moisture and rodent
damage.
Aerial cable: continuous tension and extreme
weather conditions.
Undersea/ Submarine: resisting moisture and
aquatic conditions.
14
 Stranding of layers

The first layer of the cable is wound spirally around the

core (center) in a clockwise direction, the second layer
is wound on anti-clockwise over the first and so on for
the remaining layers as seen on fig. 3 below. This
stranding of the layers assists in further reducing of
cross talk as well as allowing for a standard means of
organizing the cores.

15
 Armored Cable
These are used where cables must be placed at shallow
depths such as for crossing bridges. They are also laid direct
in the ground in areas where adverse weather conditions will
hamper the use of ordinary cables.
There are three methods of armoring cables
a. By spiral steel tapes
b. A single layer of galvanized iron
c. Combination of both tapes and wires

16
 Conductor
Solid annealed copper electrolytic copper. The
conductor sizes are 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 or 0.9 mm

17
 Insulation
Colored foam skin polyethylene insulation or solid insulation
in according to ASTM 1248, foam skin insulation with
cellular polyethylene covered with skin layer of high density
polyethylene compound. Solid insulation is made medium or
high-density polyethylene compound.

18
 Twisting / Quadding

Two or four insulated wire twisted together. The twist length

specially designed to minimize the capacitance unbalance
and cross talk.

19
 Cable Core

Twisted wires are assembled to form substantially

cylindrical groups of ten pairs (units). Super units are
assembled with suitable number of units, which are binded
with durable colored tapes and cabled to complete cable
core.

20
 Screen or shield
A single flat aluminum tape (0,2 mm thickness of
aluminum) coated both side 50 micron polyethylene film
applied longitudinally over core covering with a min.
5 mm overlap. In customer request 0,15 mm thickness
aluminum tape could be used.

21
 Inner Jacket

An extruded black low-density or medium density

polyethylene in accordance with
ASTM D 1248 encloses the cable core.

22
 Armour

Both side 50 micron copolymer coated 0,155 mm thickness

steel tape applied longitudinally over the inner jacket.
Flooding compound shall be applied under the corrugated
steel tape in order to prevent the water penetration. Two
layer galvanized steel tape armour could be applied helically
in customer request.

23
 Outer Jacket

Over the corrugated steel tape, outer jacket is extruded

black low-density or medium density polyethylene in
accordance with ASTM D 1248. Outer jacket polyethylene
is include %2,5 ±0,5 carbon black for sunrise resistance.
The color of outer sheath is black .

24
UTP Cable Construction

25
 Conductor terminology
 Annealing of copper – A process in which the conductor is
heated to over 700°F and allowed to cool. Used to allow
conductors to be bent without breaking, remove stiffness
and improve flexibility.
 Attenuation - is loss of power or signal expressed in
decibels; it is commonly written and spoken of as dBm. at a
specific frequency
 Bare copper – uncoated copper
 Bunch Stranding - A group of wires of the same diameter
twisted together without a predetermined pattern.
 Cabling - The twisting together of two or more insulated 26

conductors to form a cable.

 Conductor terminology Cont’d

 Frequency - The number of reverses or cycles in the flow

of alternating current (AC) in one second. Gauge - A
system for specifying wire size. There are two standards
to this, one uses the wire cross sectional diameter in mm
and the second is known as American Wire Gauge
(AWG), also known as Brown & Sharpe Gauge.
 Ground-An electrical term meaning to connect to the
earth or other large conducting body to serve as an earth,
thus making a complete electrical circuit .
27
 Conductor terminology Cont’d

 Impedance - is a term expressing the ratio of voltage to

current in a cable of infinite length? In the case of coaxial
cables, generally fall into three main classes; 50 ohms, 75
ohms, and 95 ohms.
 Stranding - The twisting together of small wires to form a
single larger conductor. Used to provide flexibility, ease
of handling and vibration resistance.
 Velocity of propagation - commonly called velocity, is the
ratio of the speed of the flow of an electric current in an
insulated cable to the speed of light. All insulated cables 28

have this ratio and it is expressed in a percentage .

Co-axial cable

29
 Cont’d

Signal is carried at the centre core. The core can be a single

solid wire, or stranded, or in high power/current applications
it can be hollow.
The dielectric insulator not only separates the core from the
shield, but provides the core with a consistent impedance
(mostly capacitance) between core and shield. This in turn
governs how high a frequency can be carried, and for what
length of a coaxial cable (before being attenuated too
much). The higher the dielectric constant of the insulator,
the higher the frequency that can be carried by the core, 30

and/or for a longer length.

 Cont’d

The metallic and foil shield serves multiple purposes: one

already mentioned above (known & consistent capacitance
between core and shield), as well as preventing signal from
escaping from the core conductor i.e. preventing radio
broadcasts off the coax cable), and also preventing
unwanted external noise or signals from impinging on the
signal carried by the core conductor. So the shield works bi-
directionally.

31
 Cont’d

Lastly, the plastic jacket protects the overall coaxial cable

from its environment. In simple low-end applications this is
just a single layer of plastic. But it can range all the way up
to multiple layers of both insulating as well as metallic
materials, to help make it more robust to water ingress,
chemical corrosion, attacked by wildlife, and physical
strength for when men with axes and backhoe’s accidentally
try to break it while digging for something else.

32
 Cont’d

Where: Z0 = Characteristic impedance of a coaxial

cable
E = Dielectric constant (air is 1.0)
D = Inside diameter of the "return" (outer) conductor
(conductive metal tube or one or more braids),
d = Outside diameter of the "go" (inner conductor)

33
 Cont’d
Coaxial cable has an extremely broad bandwidth; it will transmit
signals from zero frequency (direct current) up to many millions
of hertz. Literally, hundreds of conversations (or messages) can
be frequency multiplexed and transmitted simultaneously over a
single coaxial cable, or a television program occupying about
3,500,000 Hz can be transmitted simultaneously with hundreds
of phone conversations.

34
 Cont’d
Coaxial connectors:

35
 Demerits of co-axial cable:

 Ageing technology
 Limited bandwidth when compared with optic fibre
 More expensive than optic fibre cable
 Can still distribute surges even though grounded
 Heavy when compared to fibre optic cable.

36
 Review questions

1. Compare and contrast coaxial and twisted copper cables.

2. State two applications of coaxial cables.
3. Describe the structure of a coaxial cable.

37
Overhead cable distribution

38
 Cont’d
Comparison of Overhead Lines and Underground cables

39
 Cont’d

When all the factors above have been taken into

consideration then, on a pair basis, it is more economical to
provide overhead lines when the number of circuits is less
than ten.
When the number of circuits is ten or more then
underground cable is more economical. In practice, except
in large office blocks in town, almost all lines are made up
partly of underground cable and overhead lines .
40
Access distribution network elements

41
 Overhead lines types
Trunk lines connect together exchanges which are in
different exchange areas (e.g. Harare - Mutare, Harare -
Mutoko).
Junctions connect together exchanges in the same exchange
area and are usually individual circuits in an underground
cable.
A direct exchange line (DEL) is an individual and exclusive
circuit connecting the subscriber to the exchange via a pair
of wires. D.E.L.'s are usually confined within the Exchange
Area, which is a defined geographical area about the 42

exchange.
 Service provision

When a need for service has been identified, a study is

carried out to ascertain the feasibility of the project. The
study is called a survey. Basically, there are two types of
surveys: - preliminary and detailed.
A preliminary survey is the very first step that one would
take towards route construction.
Before making the actual survey, it is necessary to ascertain
whether the choice of the route will be affected by the
location of the following: (see next slide) 43
 Cont’d

1. Passage through places of special beauty

2. Town and rural planning schemes
3. Future road-widening operations
4. Underground/Overhead power circuits
5. Nearby airfields
6. School playgrounds.
When a new line is required to pass through places of
recognized special beauty, care is taken to avoid spoiling the
amenities of the place. Local authority representatives are to
be consulted for requirements specifications. 44
 Overhead service provision
Preliminary survey is carried out for following reasons:
1. Select the best route to follow (the local road authority
should be consulted beforehand)
2. Measure the approximate length of the proposed route
3. Ascertain the nature of the soil/ground
4. Ascertain (where hired transport will be required) what
transport is available and the charges payable
5. Select and arrange for camp and storage sites where
necessary
6. Obtain particulars of all local factors that will affect the 45

cost of the work

 Cont’d

7. Note and make provision for all difficulties anticipated

in the construction work such as the need for blasting
etc.
8. Ascertain the ownership of any trees that cannot
reasonably be avoided and will have to be cut.
Where trees will have to be cut and where poles, stays or
struts will have to be erected on private property the consent
of the appropriate authority or owners must be obtained
during the preliminary survey.
46
 Cont’d

A detailed survey is the second and final stage of surveying

whereby every little detail of what is supposed to be done
on the route construction is recorded. The survey is made
for the purpose of designing the most efficient and
economical route possible. Details are recorded in a survey
book.
A line survey is done during the actual line construction
using surveying rods to make where poles will be planted.
47
 Aerial distribution cable (A.D.C)

This type of cable is made up of a steel suspension wire and

a cable containing 5, 10, 20, 30 or 40 pairs. The suspension
wire and the cable are enclosed in a common
polyvinylchloride (PVC) sheath in the form of a figure 8 as
shown in below.

48
 Cont’d

The cable is available in two conductor sizes, 0.63mm for

urban distribution and 0.9mm for rural distribution. There
are three main applications for this type of cable.
1. To provide distribution in an area which does not yet
justify an underground cable scheme2. To increase the
capacity of an open wire route, the existing poles
of which are used to support the cable.
3. To provide distribution in urban area, i.e. distribution
for a new S.S.U area.
49
 Cont’d

Dummy terminations are inserted at periodic intervals for

the following reasons:
1. To allow for future D.Ps
2. To provide slack for rejoining in the event of
breakdown.
3. To provide access for fault localizing.

The overhead distribution can be either of the following

types, or a combination thereof.
1. Drop wires
50
Drop wire distribution

51
 Cont’d

Key to preceding slide, drop wire distribution.

1.Underground cable in street
2. Distribution cable to D.P.
3. D.P.
4. Drop wire to premises
5. Intermediate pole
6. Insulated bobbin

52
ADC distribution to residential stands

53
 Cont’d

Key to preceding slide, ADC distribution

1. Distribution cable
2. D.P. pole (20’ light pole)
3. D.P.
4. Aerial cable
5. Intermediate pole (20’ light pole)
6. Cross connecting box
7. Drop wire feeds to stands
8. Insulator bobbin
54
 Overhead materials

Improvements in wood preservation methods have led to the

introduction of 7.3m and 8.4m wooden poles for DP's in the
subs. distribution network. Now wooden poles have
eventually superseded steel poles. Wooden poles are classed
as light (75-100mm top diameter) or heavy (100-120mm top
diameter).
Steel poles are divided into two groups:
1. Tubular steel (S and L)
2. Parallel stepped (P/S)
55
 Cont’d
All overhead conductors, including aerial cable, must fulfil
the following requirements:
a) A low electrical resistance.
b) Be strong, so as to permit long spans.
c) Non – corroding.
d) Be cheap.
e) Be capable of withstanding considerable handling.
f) Be light in weight.
Copper alloys, satisfy the six conditions listed above, and
are mainly used. All aerial cable and underground cable use
copper wire. 56
 Stays

Stays are fitted at all terminal and angle points to counteract

the pull of the route.
Terminal Stay is used to counteract the pull of the wires on
the terminal (last) pole.
Line Stays are used to limit the extent of a route
breakdown. This type of stay is fitted in pairs, every 400
meters on heavy routes, and every 800 meters on light
routes. It is also fitted on both sides of the pole on each side
of a rail crossing, or a river crossing if the normal span
length is exceeded. 57
 Cont’d

Illustration of a stay

58
 Cont’d

Stress Stay is placed in the line of the route to counteract

the difference in stress as a result of a change in either the
number and or the gauge of the wires.
Angle Stay is used to counteract the pull of the wires where
the direction of the route changes.
Gradient Stay is used to counteract the upward pull of the
wires where the gradient angle changes upwards by more
than 8 degrees.
Wind Stay used to counteract the forces of the wind
blowing across the line of the route. They are usually fitted 59

in pairs.
 Cont’d

Overhead Stay is fitted where there is insufficient space for

an ordinary stay. See diagram below:

60
 Cont’d

Struts are used on lightly loaded routes where conditions do

not permit the use of any other form of support. The
tendency of the strut is to lift the pole out of the ground, for
this reason the use of strut should be confined to small
angles and a base-plat must be fitted on the pole to prevent
it from lifting out of the ground

61
Cont’d

Strut

62
 Protection against lightning

The most commonly used method of discharging highly

charged lines is across a small gap provided between two
electrodes, one connected to the line wire and the other (s)
to an earth electrode system. The gap may be in air or in
some low-pressure gas environment, and will ionize when
the voltage of the line reaches between 300 to 450 volts,
thus allowing the charge on the line to drain away to earth.

63
 Cont’d
The requirements of a lightning protector:
a) Minimum operating voltage of not less than 300V to
allow for insulation resistance tests.
b) Where a discharge path is provided from both wires of
a pair to a common earth electrode, the characteristics of
both paths shall be as nearly equal as possible so as to
prevent the setting up of high transverse voltages.
c) Any damage caused by discharge should be obvious on
visual inspection, or should permanently earth the line.
d) Should be self-restoring and be capable of giving
repeated fault free service for a long time. 64
 Gas filled protector

The standard protector now being fitted is the "rare gas

tube", which is available in two basic versions, triple path
and single path. The triple path protector has three
electrodes, the center one connected to earth, and the two
outer ones to the line. Both line and earth electrodes are in
the same gas-filled envelope and provide discharge paths to
both earth and transversely. The peak transverse voltage is
reduced since both halves of the protector are likely to
strike at the same time.
65
 Cont’d
Gas-Filled Protector shown below is self-restoring and is
available in three forms, 16A, 16B and 16C which break
down at 180V, 360V and 700V respectively. The 16B is
normally used.

66
 Service to thatched roof
The line feeding the subscriber's premises
should be terminated on a pole, a minimum
distance from the roof of the building of 21.3
meters. The overhead wires must have a
minimum clearance from any thatched roof-of at
least the height of the poles above ground. The
overhead route is terminated at the pole and
connected to a triple path rare gas protector.
The connection to the premises is by means of
an underground cable secured to the pole and 67

fed to the nearest uncovered external wall.

 Cont’d
Terminations to a thatched roof

68
 Classification of the Line Plant

Line plant functions could be classified either by lay or

network type or transmission system In this course we
will look at the classification by lay.
The classifications by lay are:
i. Overhead line plant
ii. Underground line plant
iii. Underwater line plant
The overhead line plant consists of aerial cables, wires,
poles, stays and their attachments. Overhead line
plants are economical in construction but must be 69

guarded against severe weather conditions.

 Cont’d
Underground line plant is made up of a cable placed in a
conduit or directly buried more than one meter below the
ground surface. Jointing chambers and manholes are
located at convenient points to interconnect the cables to
their appropriate destinations. Underground line plant
are usually stable against natural disturbances that are
expensive in the construction.
Cables laid under lakes or rivers are referred to as
underwater cables whilst those laid under the sea are
called submarine cables. These cables are specifically 70

constructed to stand the aquatic conditions.

 Cont’d
Methods of laying underground cables
Three methods of cable laying are
a. Direct burial
b. Drawing cable in ducts/conduits
c. Laying cable in troughs
The choice of a particular method depends on, the type of
cable to be laid, nature of cable route, intended initial
outlay in doing the work and anticipated annual
maintenance charges. The relative merits of the three
systems are summarized below
71
 Cont’d
Direct burial of cable
This method of laying cable is comparatively simple and
cheaper. It involves digging a trench in the ground and
directly laying the cable on a bedding of soft earth free from
stones and corrosive.
Cables drawn in ducts: This system of cable installation
involves laying of PVC ducts in much the same way as
directly buried cable. These pipes are to be water tightly
sealed at each joint which consists of a male – female link.
These should be laid as straight as possible between
adjacent manholes or handholes.
72
 Cont’d
Main disadvantages of a duct method:
The main disadvantages of this system are: -
a. Higher initial costs
b. The duct alignment should be as straight as possible.
c. Manholes have to be constructed to accommodate
joints etc.
d. Whenever a fault occurs, the whole section has to be
replaced whereas if it is direct buried and is nearer a
joint, only a comparatively short length has to be
replaced with the addition of one or two new joints. 73
 Cont’d
Trenching
Trenching and ducting for laying underground cables
can be done by
a. Manual excavations
b. Thrust boring
c. Excavation with mechanical tools
Manual excavations: In ordinary circumstances,
excavation can be done by means of pick-axes, shovels
and crow-bars depending on the nature of the soil.
When rocks or concrete has to be broken, special tools
such as chisels and sledge hammers maybe employed 74

as practicable on site.
 Cont’d
Thrust boring is most suitable for use in urban and built-up
areas generally, to avoid excavation and reinstatement of
long continuous made up surfaces which may be expensive
and the trenching of which may be objected to by the
authorities concerned.
A tunnel or heading under a roadway or railway tracks is
sometimes adopted to avoid opening up surfaces. This is
often necessary when the number of other pipes and
services existing on the site, or uncertainty about their
location and depth make thrust boring risky. 75
 Cont’d
The bottom of the trench should be carefully levelled and
freed from stones, but if gradients or changes of depth are
unavoidable, they should be gradual. If the soil is known to
ne chemically active, it may be necessary to use sand
above and below the directly buried cable. The reminder of
the portion of the trench maybe filled in and well tamped.
It is advisable to leave a crown of earth rising not less than
5 cm in the center and tapering towards the sides of the
trench. This allows for natural subsidence.

76
 Cont’d
Depth of trench
The ducts should be laid as shallow as possible consistent
with type of obstructions that might be encountered. The
depth of the upper surface of the top most layer of the pipes
in trench from the surface of the footway, carriage way
should not however exceed the following
60 cm for footway/footpath
80 cm for carriageway/ road crossings
120 cm for rail way line crossings.
The trench should have the minimum width required for a
man to work in 77
 Cont’d
Obstructions
1) In case the plot holes and other indications reveal the
existence of obstruction under footpath which cannot be
overcome without changing the route, this change of duct
route should be done.
2) In the case of electricity mains, water mains, sewer
mains, storm water drains, it must be considered whether it
would be cheaper to alter the proposed route or to have the
obstruction removed or diverted at your company’s
expense.
78
 Ducts

GENERAL
Underground cables are either laid in conduits or
directly buried. In either event, a certain amount of
trenching is involved. Before any trenching is carried
out, it is essential that the cable route be carefully
surveyed. The importance of surveying the route is to
mark-up areas where obstructions exist and to plan the
route so as to avoid such obstructions. Sometimes the
most suitable route may pass through private property,
in which case an appropriate wayleave must be 79

obtained before excavation starts.

 Cont’d

The decision as to whether the cable should be buried

direct or placed in conduits must be viewed from not
only on the economic consideration but such factors as:
1. The capacity and number of cables involved
2. The easy accessibility of the route.
3. The maintenance aspects.
4. Would wayleave be easily obtained if the route is
to be re-dug from time to time
5. The location of the route, whether in a city area,
urban or village 80
 Cont’d
Type of Ducts
Whilst some telecommunication cables are laid directly
in the ground, it is a general practice to contain the
majority of underground cables in underground pipes
commonly referred to as ducts/conduits.
These are: -
1) PVC ducts
2) Polyethylene ducts
3) Steel ducts
4) Galvanized ducts
5) Concrete ducts 81

6) Asbestos ducts
 Cont’d
Cable ducts

82
 Cont’d
Cable laying installation and pulling equipment

83
 Review questions

1. A 600/0.5 PJF has 2 layers of units. One inner

core and five outside layer units. The units are
bundled in units of 25 pairs. Identify the following
pairs by filling in the table:

84
 Cont’d
2. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of the inside
terminations of a cabinet.
(b) Cabinet #2 has 80x 10 pair Krone DPs and a
400/0.5pjf primary cable terminated on it. Fill in the
following table:

85
 Customer networks

Originally the structure of the line network had all

subscribers’ telephones connected to the exchange by
bare galvanized (zinc plated) iron, bronze or copper
wires which were carried on insulators fixed on arms
which were fixed on poles. practical complications
arose as then many wires converged and originated
from the exchange haphazardly. This led to the present
practice of running multi pair cables in ducts from the
exchange to distribution points. The cables are of the
types mentioned in the previous section and come in 86

various sizes as large as 4800 pairs.

 Cont’d
In network design there are 2 methods of cable
arrangements:
 Rigid Network
 Flexible Network
Plus A combination of the two above.
In a RIGID network all conductors are firmly jointed
together between the exchange and the Distribution
Point (DP). In the case of a small exchange of less
than 100 they may go out in the form of a star as
shown on the next slide. 87
 Cont’d
Rigid Network

88
 Cont’d

Advantages of star networks are:

 Easy provision of service at the DP
 Records are simple The main disadvantages is
that when no spare pairs are available at a DP
a great amount of work is required to
rearrange the pairs and to provide new
lines/pairs from the joints, therefore a large
number of spare pairs must be provided at the
DP.
So the greater the inaccuracy during network 89

design, the greater the disadvantage due to

 Cont’d
In the Rigid network shown two slides above, a
total length of copper wire pairs is 10 × 4 × 3 km
which = 120 km of pairs. If the average number
of working pairs on a DP is 7, the number of
working pairs to the exchange is therefore 28
which is 84 km of pairs in use and 36 km of pairs
(12×3) not in use.
This means a lot of dead money is in these
unused pairs which is uneconomical. A typical
arrangement of a rigid network is shown next. 90
 Cont’d
Rigid network

91
 Cont’d
Flexible networks

92
 Cont’d
The above figure shows a method which will provide
the 28 subscribers with pairs to the Exchange and give
2 spare pairs. This is done by providing a 30pair cable
to a point 2.75 km from the exchange and terminating
it in a terminal box. At this same point the four 10 pair
cables which go to the DPS are also terminated in such
a way that connections can be made with jumper wires
between them and the 30pair cable. At the point where
the 30 pair and 10 pair cables are terminated is called a
Cross Connection Point (CCP) i.e. a Cabinet.
93
 Cont’d
It will be seen that the length of pairs between the
exchange and the CCP is 82.5 km pairs (30×2.75) and
between the D.Ps and the CCP will be 10 km pairs
(40×0.25)
The sum of these 2 lengths 82.5 + 10 is 92.5 kilometers
which is 27.5 kilometers less than in the Rigid network
above. This amounts to a saving in copper of about 30%
between the two methods, therefore this second method
called a flexible network is the better method.
Furthermore, there are two pair spares between the CCP
and the exchange which will give service to 17% of the 94

space between the CCP and the four DPs

 Cont’d

The main advantages of flexible networks are:

 Cable pairs are saved so that less space is needed
on the MDF.
 Cable fault locations are made easier.
 When providing relief cables, the jointing procedure
is also simplified as all the pairs are terminated
either on the MDF or the cross-connection points.
Disadvantages
 Additional cost for the provision of cross
connection facility. 95

 Increased fallout liability especially in the tropics.

 Semi Rigid Networks
With this method, a portion of the pairs is jointed to
the DPS without terminating in the seat CCP and these
pairs form the rigid part of the network. The remaining
pairs are terminated in the CCP and form the flexible
part of the network.

96
 Multiple teeing
This is illustrated in the next slide where some of the
pairs are teed together in parallel in the cable route and
thus become accessible at more than one distribution
point. There are disadvantages with this method, these
are:
 Complicated records
 Difficulty in fault locating.
 Degraded transmission due to increased capacitance
and the increasing amount of wasted copper.

97
 Flexible Linked Networks
Flexible Linked Network
This comprises of linked pairs between CCPs or DPs
which give access to pairs at more than one point as
illustrated in the figure below.

98
 PCCP and SCCP

Primary Cross Connection Point and Secondary

Cross Connection Point. These act as connections
or joints between the different divisions of the
network. They are often called “flexibility points
or units” because they allow exchange pairs to be
diverted from one room to another quite easily
and that the system is flexible. An SCCP is the
subsidiary flexibility unit of the PCCP.
99
 Some Terms used in Flexible networks
 Cabinet Area -The area served by a cross
connection point.
 Cable - A collection of multiple pairs contained
in a single insulating material.
 Main Cable - A cable usually containing a large
number of pairs connecting the exchange to a
cross connection point.
 Primary cable connects to the exchange with
the CCP.
 Secondary Cable- A cable serving a distribution
point. 100
Summary of Cable Type and Applications
PIJF [POLYETHYLENE INSULATED JELLY
FILLED CABLE] Solid / foam/foam skin
Twisted pair cable with solid/foam/foam skin
Polyethylene insulated copper conductor, jelly filled,
Polyethylene sheathed, bonded poly- Aluminium
moisture barrier, un-armored, armored polyethene
jacket U.G [underground] cable.
Application;
Can be used for inter- exchange connections and for
the general local network usage as a distribution
cable. 101
 Cont’d
Overhead cable and wires;
Polyethylene Insulated self- supporting aerial
cable in which a suspension wire [catenary] and
the cable are contained in a single Polyethylene
jacket of a figure of 8 section.

Application;
Cable intended for use as a telephone distribution
cable suspended from poles.
102
 Cont’d

Pcm cables or co-axial cables

Description: Solid round copper conductor,
Polyethylene insulated jelly filled, poly Al
moisture barrier, bonded Polyethylene sheathed
UG telecommunications cable usable for 2Mbps
digital system.

Application;
Transmission medium for 2Mbps digital signals
103
 Cont’d
13. Explain the various media types used below

104
END OF LESSON 2

105