Unit 4

Research Design
And
Proposal
Major Contents of Unit 4

4.1. Research Design

4. 2. Research Approaches

4.3. Components of Proposal

 4.1. The Research Design
A) The Essence of Research Design
 A research design is a blueprint for the collection and
analysis of data created to answer research questions.

 A research design is a plan and strategy of investigation

so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.

 Research design includes the outline of what the

investigator will do from the hypotheses up to final
 ……Cont.
A research design is a procedural plan that is
adopted by the researcher to answer questions
validly, objectively, accurately and economically.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions

for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.
 ….Cont.
B) Key Components of a Research Design: -
Purpose:

• It clearly defines whether the study is exploratory, or

descriptive or explanatory or experimental………
Research Questions or Hypotheses:

• It specifies the questions to be answered and/or the

hypotheses to be tested.
Population and Sampling:

• It identifies the target population and sample using

probability and/or non-probability techniques.
 ……Cont.
Data Collection Methods:
• Deals with the details how data will be collected (e.g.,
surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations).
Variables:
• Defines the independent, dependent, and other variables (if
applicable).
Data Analysis tools
• Specifies the techniques or tools to be used for analyzing the
collected data.
Time Frame/horizon:
• Indicates whether the study is cross-sectional (data collected
at one point in time) or longitudinal (data collected over a
period)
 ……Cont.
C) Types of Research Designs:

1. Exploratory Research Design:

• Used to explore a phenomenon, often in the early stages of
research.
 Example: Conducting focus groups to understand customer preferences.

2. Descriptive Research Design:

• Aims to describe characteristics or functions of a phenomenon or
population.
 Example: A survey to determine the average age of people using a fitness
app.

3. Explanatory (Causal) Research Design:

• Seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
 Example: Testing whether a new teaching method improves student
 …..Cont.
4. Experimental Research Design:
 Involves manipulating one or more variables (independent
variables) to observe their effect on an outcome (dependent
variable) while controlling other factors.
Example: Testing the effectiveness of a drug by comparing
results from a treatment group and a control group.

 Experimental Research Design in social science:

Research Topic: Effect of reminders on voter turnout
Design: A political science study sends text message
reminders to a random group of registered voters before
an election (experimental group), while others receive
no message (control group).
 …..Cont.
5. Correlational Research Design:
• Examines the relationship between two or more variables
without establishing causation.
Example: Studying the correlation between hours of study and
academic performance.

6. Qualitative Research Design:

• Focuses on understanding concepts, experiences, or social
contexts through non-numeric data like interviews or
observations.
Example: Exploring the lived experiences of cancer survivors.

7. Mixed-Methods Research Design:

• Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a
comprehensive view.
Example: Using surveys (quantitative) and interviews (qualitative) to
study employee satisfaction.
 …..Cont.

D) Major Categories of Research Design

 In the above sub-sessions, a number of types of

research design are listed down.

 From among these, the three are commonly categorized

as basic types of research design.

 These includes the followings :-

1.Exploratory Design

2. Descriptive Design
 ……Cont.

1. Exploratory Research Design

The Essence- to explore means to discover, to examine
 Exploratory research design is a type of research

that aims to investigate an issue, event, phenomenon,

or problem where very little is known or understood.

 It focuses on gaining insights, understanding

underlying reasons, and developing ideas or

hypotheses for future studies.

 …..Cont.
 Exploratory research design is defined as a flexible and

open-ended research approach that focuses on investigating a

problem, phenomenon, or topic with limited prior knowledge
or understanding.
 Its primary aim is to generate insights, identify patterns,

and develop ideas or hypotheses for further, more structured

research.
 Exploratory research design does not seek to provide

conclusive results but serves as a foundation for subsequent

 …..Cont.
 The Purpose:
 The main purpose of exploratory research design is to discover and generate

new ideas and preliminary insights, especially when little is known about an

issue.
 The Characteristics:
 It is typically qualitative in nature.

 Flexible and open-ended, without rigid structure.

 The Methods:
 Focus group discussions

 In-depth interviews.
 …..Cont.
2. Descriptive Research Design
 Descriptive research design is a type of research used to
systematically describe the attitudes, perceptions
characteristics, behaviors of persons being studied.
 Unlike exploratory research, descriptive research focuses on
providing detailed and factual information about a specific
subject without attempting to determine cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Descriptive research design examines the who, what, when,
and where questions.
 …..Cont.
 The Purpose:
To describe the characteristics, behaviors, or functions
of a population or phenomenon.
 The Characteristics:
Often quantitative/number in nature.
Structured and well-defined.
Focused on answering the what, where, when, and
how questions, not the why question.
 The Methods:
Surveys and questionnaires.
Observations.
Cross-sectional studies.
 …..Cont.

3. Explanatory/analytical Research Design

Explanatory research design is a type of research
aimed at exploring cause-and-effect relationships
between variables.
It focuses on explaining how or why certain phenomena
occur by investigating the causal links between different
factors – why/how a factor affects another factor.
This type of research often involves testing hypotheses
to determine the direction and strength of relationships.
 …..Cont.
The Purpose:
To investigate cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
The Characteristics:
Highly structured and controlled.
Tests hypotheses to establish whether changes in one
variable cause changes in another.
Focuses on the "why" or "how" questions.
 The Methods:
Experiments (laboratory or field).
Longitudinal studies.
Control and experimental groups.
 ….Cont.
 Methods Used in Explanatory Research:
Explanatory research design aims to clarify
cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
It goes beyond merely describing phenomena
(descriptive research) and seeks to explain why
and how certain events or conditions occur.
To achieve this, explanatory research employs
several methods, including qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed approaches.
Below are the common methods used in
explanatory research design
 …..Cont.
Experiments:
• Description: Experimental methods involve manipulating one
or more independent variables to observe their effect on
dependent variables.
• Control groups are often used to eliminate confounding or
confusing factors.
• Example: Testing the effect of government subsidies on
farmers' productivity in Ethiopia by providing subsidies to one
group and not to another, then comparing results
Longitudinal Studies:
• Observing variables over an extended period to determine
causal relationships.
• Example: Studying the impact of diet on heart health over a
decade.
 ….Cont.

Regression Analysis:
• Description: Regression is a statistical method used to
examine the relationship between one dependent variable (the
outcome you’re interested in) and one or more independent
variables (the factors that may influence the outcome).
• It helps to quantify how changes in the independent
variables are associated with changes in the dependent
variable, often used to predict or explain outcomes.
Example: Examining the effect of inflation on household
saving rates in Ethiopia using regression models.
 …..Cont.

Types of Regression
 Simple Linear Regression:
• Examines the relationship between one dependent variable and one
independent variable.
• Example: Studying how a worker’s income (dependent variable) is
affected by years of education (independent variable).
 Multiple Linear Regression:
• Explores the relationship between one dependent variable and multiple
independent variables.
• Example: Investigating how income is influenced by education, work
experience.
 Logistic Regression:
• Used when the dependent variable is categorical (e.g., yes/no,
success/failure).
• Example: Analyzing whether a person will default on a loan based on
income, credit score, and employment status.
 4.2. Research Approaches
A) Quantitative Research Approach
 Quantitative research uses objective measurement to gather numeric data
that are used to answer questions or test predetermined hypotheses.
 Quantitative research approach requires a well-controlled setting in which the
investigator primarily uses positivist or post-positivist claims for developing
knowledge.
 The researcher employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and
surveys, and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield
statistical data.
 Quantitative research emanates from an objectivist position which holds
that reality exists independently of the researcher – the truth is ‘out there’.
22
 ……Cont.
Quantitative research approach is used to:-
measure differences between groups;
assess relationships between variables; and
test hypotheses scientifically.

Types of Quantitative Research Design :-

1. Experimental Design
2. Non-experimental Design
 ……Cont.
1) Experimental Research Design
 Experimental research design is a systematic method used in
research to establish cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
 It involves manipulating one variable (the independent
variable) to observe its effect on another variable (the
dependent variable), while controlling for other potential
influences (extraneous variables).
 In experimental research design, experimental groups and
control groups are fundamental concepts used to test
 …..Cont.
 This type of research is widely used in the natural and
social sciences, medicine, and psychology, where the
goal is to test hypotheses under controlled conditions.

 Experimental group is the group in an experiment

that receives the treatment or the variable being
tested.
 Control group is the group that does not receive the
treatment, and it serves as a baseline for comparison.
 ……Cont.
 Types of Experimental Research Design:
a) Pre-Experimental Designs:
 Pre-experimental designs are a type of research design that
lack the rigorous controls found in true experimental designs.
 They are often used for exploratory purposes, to gather initial
insights or to test the feasibility of a study before conducting
more robust experiments.
 Key Characteristics of Pre-Experimental Designs:
 Lack of Randomization: Participants or groups are not
randomly assigned to experimental and control groups.
 Minimal Control: There is little to no control over extraneous
variables that could affect the results.
 No Comparison Group (in some cases): Some pre-
experimental designs do not include a control group, making it
difficult to establish causality
 ……Cont.
b) True Experimental Designs:
 True experimental research design is a highly structured research
method used to establish causal relationships between variables.
 True experimental research designs are those where researchers have
complete control over the extraneous variables and can predict
confidently that the observed effect on the dependent variable is only
due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
 Key Features of True Experimental Research Design:
 Randomization:
– Participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups to minimize
selection bias and ensure groups are comparable.
 Control Group:
– A group that does not receive the experimental treatment is included for comparison
purposes. This helps isolate the effect of the independent variable.
 Manipulation of the Independent Variable:
– The researcher deliberately changes or manipulates the independent variable to observe its
effect on the dependent variable.
• High Internal Validity:
– Through randomization and control, extraneous/unnessary variables are minimized,
making it more likely that observed effects are due to the treatment.
 ……Cont.
c) Quasi-Experimental Designs:
 A quasi-experimental research design is a type of research method used to establish
cause-and-effect relationships between variables when true randomization is not
possible.
 It is similar to a true experimental design, but it lacks random assignment of
participants to groups.
 As a result, quasi-experiments are often used in real-world settings where strict control
and randomization are impractical or unethical
 Key Features of Quasi-Experimental Design:
 No Random Assignment:
– Participants are assigned to experimental and control groups based on non-random
criteria (e.g., pre-existing conditions, location, or availability).
 Manipulation of the Independent Variable:
– The researcher still manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the
dependent variable.
 Comparison Groups:
– Control or comparison groups are often included, but they are not created through
randomization.
 Less Control:
– There is less control over extraneous variables, increasing the likelihood of
confounding factors affecting the results.
 ……Cont.
d) Factorial Designs:-
 A factorial research design is a type of experimental research design used
to study the effects of two or more independent variables (also called
factors) simultaneously.
 It examines not only the individual (main) effects of each independent
variable on the dependent variable but also the interaction effects—how
the independent variables work together to influence the outcome.
 Factorial designs are widely used in scientific research because they
provide a comprehensive understanding of how multiple variables interact
 Key Features of Factorial Design:
 Multiple Independent Variables:
– Involves two or more factors, each with at least two levels (e.g., high/low, present/absent).
 Combination of Conditions:
– Each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of the other independent
variables to create different experimental conditions.
 Main Effects and Interaction Effects:
– Main Effect: The individual impact of each independent variable on the dependent variable.
– Interaction Effect: How the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of
another.
 ……Cont.
Examples of Experimental Research Design
1. Effect of Diversity Training on Bias:
Objective: To evaluate whether diversity training
reduces implicit racial biases.
Design: Randomly assign participants to:
– Experimental group: Attends a diversity training
session.
– Control group: Does not receive training.
Measurement: Pre- and post-training implicit bias
tests (e.g., Implicit Association Test).
Outcome: Assess changes in bias levels to evaluate
training effectiveness.
 ……Cont.
2. Leader Transparency and Employee Trust:
Objective: To examine whether leader transparency
fosters greater trust among employees.
Design: Employees are assigned to two groups under
different leadership styles:
• Experimental group: Leaders openly share decision-making
processes and organizational challenges.
• Control group: Leaders communicate decisions without
sharing underlying details.
Measurement: Employee trust levels measured via
surveys at the beginning and end of the study.
Outcome: Analyze survey results to evaluate changes in
trust based on leader transparency.
 …..Cont.
 Key Features of Quantitative Research:
 Numerical Data:
• Focuses on quantifiable variables, such as percentages, frequencies, averages,
or statistical significance.
• Example: "What is the average income of residents in a city?"
 Objective Measurement:
• Data collection and analysis are structured to minimize researcher bias.
• Example: Using standardized questionnaires to gather data.
 Hypothesis Testing:
• Often involves testing specific hypotheses to determine relationships or
differences between variables.
• Example: "Does exercise reduce stress levels?"
 Large Sample Sizes:
• Typically involves larger samples to ensure generalizability of the findings.
 Use of Statistical Tools:
• Data is analyzed using mathematical and statistical methods to interpret
results.
 …..Cont.
 Structured Design:
• Research methods are pre-determined and follow a fixed protocol to
ensure consistency.
 Methods of Quantitative Research:
• Surveys and Questionnaires:
• Example: Conducting a customer satisfaction survey.
 Experiments:
• Controlled studies where variables are manipulated to observe effects on
a dependent variable.
• Example: Testing the impact of a new drug on blood pressure.
 Observational Studies:
• Quantitative observations of behaviors or phenomena.
• Example: Recording traffic flow at an intersection.
 Secondary Data Analysis:
• Using existing numerical data, such as census data or financial reports.
•
 ....Cont.

B) Qualitative Research Approach

 Qualitative research deals with the understanding of a phenomenon or an event using
non-numerical data.
 The main goal of qualitative research is to establish an understanding of a phenomenon
using the subjective point of view of human beings.
 Qualitative research focuses on understanding social phenomena from the
perspective of the human participants in natural settings.
 It does not begin with formal hypotheses, but it may result in hypotheses as the
study unfolds.
 Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
 Qualitative research approach is a method of inquiry that focuses on understanding
people's experiences, behaviors, and the meanings they attach to them.
34
 …….Cont.

 Qualitative research is collecting, analyzing and

interpreting data by observing what people do and say.
 Qualitative research is subjective and uses very different
methods of collecting information, including individual,
in-depth interviews and focus groups.
 By using qualitative research, complexities of human
behavior, attitudes, and experiences are analyzed and
evaluated.
 It helps researchers to understand the deep motivations
and meaning behind human actions.
 Researchers use qualitative research to collect subjective
data and information from various participants and key
sources to provide extensive key conclusions about a
certain human psychological problem.
 …….Cont.
Major types of Qualitative Research Design
1) Case Study
2) Ethnography
3) Phenomenology
4) Grounded Theory
5) Content Analysis
 ……Cont.
1) A case study
 A case study is a qualitative research method used to
explore and analyze a specific individual, group, event,
organization, or phenomenon in depth.
It seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of
the subject by examining it within its real-life context.
2) Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative research method used to
study and understand cultures of communities, or social
groups by immersing oneself in their daily lifes and
observing their behaviors, rituals, and interactions.
 ……Cont.
3) Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a qualitative research design that
seeks to understand and describe how individuals
experience and interpret the world.
4)Grounded Theory
Grounded Theory is a qualitative research design used to
develop theories based on data collected from the field.
It emphasizes generating a theory grounded in the data
itself rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses.
5) Content Analysis
Content Analysis is a systematic research method used
to analyze and interpret textual, visual, or audio content
to identify patterns, themes, or meanings.
 …..Cont.
 Key Features of Qualitative Research:
 Non-Numerical Data:
• Focuses on descriptive data, such as interviews, observations, or
open-ended survey responses.
• Example: Collecting stories or personal narratives about a life event.
 Subjective Interpretation:
• Data analysis is more interpretive, allowing for a deeper
understanding of meanings, feelings, and motivations.
• Example: Analyzing interview transcripts to identify recurring
themes.
 Contextual Understanding:
• Emphasizes understanding phenomena within their social, cultural,
or historical context.
• Example: Studying the cultural significance of rituals in a particular
community.
 ……Cont.
Methods of Qualitative Research:
Interviews:
• In-depth, open-ended conversations with individuals to explore their
perspectives.
Focus Groups:
• Group discussions guided by a facilitator to gather diverse views on a particular
topic.
Participant Observation:
• The researcher immerses themselves in the setting being studied and observes
behaviors and interactions.
• Example: A researcher living in a community to observe how people interact in
daily life.

• Case Studies:
• A detailed exploration of a single case or small group, providing in-depth insight.
• Example: Studying a particular school or organization to understand its culture
and challenges.
 ….Cont.

C) Mixed Research Approach

 Mixed research approach refers to the understanding of a particular event
by using both numerical and non-numerical data.
 It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and
quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches.
 Mixed research allows researchers to gather both subjective and
objective data to develop a deep and comprehensive understanding of the
research question.
 Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of data; it
also involves the use of both approaches so that the overall strength of a
study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative research. 41
 ….Cont.
 A mixed method approach is one in which the researcher
tends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds
(e.g., consequence-oriented, problem-centered, and
pluralistic).
 It employs strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data
either simultaneously or sequentially to best understand
research problems.
 Generalize from a sample to a population (as in
quantitative) and gain a richer, contextual understanding of
the phenomenon being researched (as in qualitative).
 ……Cont.
Types of Mixed Research Design

1) Explanatory Sequential Design

2) Exploratory Sequential Design

3) Concurrent Embedded Design

4) Concurrent Triangulation Design

 ……Cont.
1) Explanatory Sequential Design (Two Phase Model):
First, collecting quantitative data then collecting
qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the
quantitative results.
Its purpose is to use qualitative results to assist the
finding of a quantitative research.

2. Exploratory Sequential Design:

 First, collecting the qualitative data to explore a
phenomenon, then collecting quantitative data to
explore the relationship found in the qualitative data.
 The purpose of exploratory design is to explore a
phenomenon.
 ……Cont.
3) Concurrent Embedded Design : -
 Concurrent embedded design is a mixed research
design in which one data set provides a supportive,
secondary role in a study based primarily on the
other data type.
 The premises of this design are that a single data set
is not sufficient, that different questions need to be
answered, and that each type of question requires
different types of data.
 ……Cont.
4) Concurrent Triangulation Design
 The most common and well-known approach to mixed
research approach is the Concurrent Triangulation Design.
 The purpose of this design is to obtain different but
complementary data on the same topic to best understand
the research problem.
 The intent in using this design is to bring together the
differing strengths and weaknesses of quantitative
approach with those of qualitative approach.
 ……..Cont.
Major Types of Mixed Research

Triangulation Strategy

Concurrent Embedded/Nested
Design Strategy
Transformative
Mixed Strategy
Research
Explanatory Strategy

Sequential
Exploratory Strategy
Design

Transformative
Strategy 47
 ….Cont.

Key Features of Mixed Research Approach:

 Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Data:
• Example: Using a survey to gather statistical data on job satisfaction, followed
by in-depth interviews to explore the reasons behind the survey results.
 Complementary Strengths:
• Example: A study on consumer behavior might use quantitative methods to
measure overall satisfaction and qualitative methods to explore the reasons
behind consumer choices.
 Flexibility in Data Collection:
• Example: Conducting a large-scale survey (quantitative) followed by focus
groups to explore in detail the participants’ opinions (qualitative).
 Sequential or Concurrent Data Collection:
• Sequential: One method is used first, followed by the other. For instance,
collecting qualitative data first to inform the development of a quantitative
survey.
• Concurrent: Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same
time. For example, administering a survey and conducting interviews
simultaneously.
 ……Cont.
Types of Mixed Research Designs:
Explanatory Design:
• Example: A researcher might start with a survey to determine that
employees are dissatisfied with workplace policies, then conduct
interviews to understand the reasons behind the dissatisfaction.
Exploratory Design:
• The researcher collects and analyzes qualitative data first, followed by
quantitative data to test or measure the themes identified in the
qualitative phase.
• Example: Conducting focus groups to explore potential new product
ideas, then using a survey to measure consumer interest in those ideas.
Convergent Design:
• Example: Conducting a survey and interviews at the same time, then
comparing and combining the findings from both to form a
comprehensive understanding.
4.3. Components of Proposal

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
TEMPLAT
 Components

Main research proposal components

3.1. Preliminary pages

3.2. Main Body

3.3. References & Annex

 3.1. Components - Preliminary pages
The preliminary part includes :-
Title/Cover page,
table of contents,
acknowledgements,
declaration,
acronyms
tables and figures
 abstract
 ………..Cont.

1. The Title/Cover page:-

 The title page is the first page of a document,
report, thesis, or book, and it typically provides
key information about the work.

 It serves as the focusing lens of the research

project.
 should not be too lengthy, and should not be
burdened by pretentious/exaggerated words .
 ……Cont.
 The title/cover page often include:-
 the official logo of the University (ECSU) at the top
center of the page.
 name of the college will be stated on the first line

 name of the department the student belongs to.

 title of the thesis in block (capital) letters

 name of the candidate and advisor/s.

 month, year, and place of submission (separated by

commas)
 …….Cont.
2. Table of contents:
The table of contents should list all of the major
headings and sub-headings within the body of the
thesis.
They must be worded exactly as they appear in the
body of the thesis/dissertation or proposal.
The table of contents shall be generated automatically
or prepared in a hyperlink format so that searching
topics in the document can be easily done.
3.2. Components- the Main body
The main body of research Proposal
includes three chapters namely:

Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Three
Chapter 1:

Introduction
 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Chapter One in a research proposal typically

serves as the introductory and lays the
groundwork for the three chapters.
 In a research proposal, chapter one mainly
contains the background, statement of the
problem, research questions, research
objectives, scope of the study among others.
.
 …….Cont.

1. Background of the Study

1.1. The Essence :-
It is essential as it provides the context and
foundation for your thesis.
It should explain the broader and specific
areas of study as well as it justifies why
your research is significant.
 ……Cont.
1.2. The Main Points of background
1. The Introductory Section :-
 It introduces the reader to your research proposal and research topic.

 It provides a summary of existing knowledge and highlights basic

issues.
 It justifies the importance of your research by connecting the
problem to the broader field.
 It highlights what is already known about the topic and identifies
the research gap.
 It sets the stage for your problem statement, objectives, and research
questions.
 ……Cont.
2. Steps to Write the Background
a) Start with a Broad Overview of the Topic
Begin by introducing the general field of
study and explaining why it is important.
Example:

Employee turnover is a challenge in the

healthcare sector.
 ……Cont.
b) Narrow Down to the Specific Issue
Highlight the particular problem within the broader
topic that your research addresses.
Use evidence, statistics, or examples to make the issue
concrete and relevant.

Example:
High turnover rates among nurses in public hospitals
have led to staffing shortages and compromised patient
care.
 ……Cont.
d) Highlight the Importance of Addressing the Problem
 Explain the significance of addressing the problem in terms
of its impact on stakeholders, systems, or society.
 Justify why your research is timely and necessary.

e) Lead into Your Research Focus

 Conclude the background by connecting the discussion to
your specific research focus, laying the groundwork for
your problem statement, research questions, and objectives.
 2. Statement of the Problem
2.1. The Essence :-
 Constructing a statement of the problem is a

crucial step in research, as it defines the focus and

rationale of your study.
 A well-written problem statement outlines the issue

your research addresses, highlights its significance,

and identifies the gap your study intends to fill.
2.2. Steps to Construct a SOP :-
a) Identify the General Issue:
 Begin by identifying a broad problem or challenge within your field of study.

 Consider societal, organizational, academic, or practical issues that require

attention.

 Example: "Employee turnover is a persistent challenge in the healthcare sector."

b) Narrow Down to a Specific Problem:

 Focus on a specific aspect of the general problem that is manageable

and researchable.

 Ensure it is neither too broad nor too narrow.

 Example: "High turnover rates among nurses in public hospitals

have led to staffing shortages and compromised patient care."

 ….Cont.

c) Provide Evidence of the Problem:

 Use data, statistics, or references to existing studies to demonstrate the problem’s

existence and relevance.

 This establishes credibility and urgency for your research.

 Example: "Recent statistics from the Ministry of Health show that nurse turnover in

public hospitals increased by 20% over the past three years.

d) Explain the Context and Background:
 Briefly describe the causes or factors contributing to the problem.

 Highlight how the problem affects stakeholders, society at large…..

 Example: "Key factors contributing to high nurse turnover include

burnout, low wages, and limited career advancement opportunities. This

has strained hospital operations and led to longer patient wait times."
 …..Cont.

e) Highlight the Gap in Existing Knowledge:

Identify what is not yet known or understood about the
problem, or areas where current solutions are
inadequate.
This justifies the need for your research.
Example: "While studies have explored nurse burnout,
there is limited research on how career development
programs can reduce turnover in public healthcare
settings."
 ……Cont.
f) State the Consequences of Not Addressing the Problem:

 Emphasize the implications if the problem remains

unresolved.

 Show the potential benefits of solving the problem.

Example: "Failure to address high turnover rates could lead

to worsened staffing shortages, declining patient care

quality, and increased healthcare costs."

 n e d i s h a l f
we l ld efi
“A p ro b l e m
solved”

69
 3. Objectives of the study

3.1. General objective of the study

a) The Essence
 The general objective of a thesis is a broad statement that defines

the overall purpose of your research.

 It serves as the central goal that guides the entire study.

 It describes what your study aims to achieve at a broad level,

serving as a foundation for the specific objectives or research

questions.
.
 ……….Cont.

b) Steps to Write a General Objective

 Reflect on the SOP : -
• Start by understanding the problem your research addresses.

• The general objective should directly respond to this problem

and align with the study's title, background and other points.

 Use Action-Oriented Language:

• Use verbs such as explore, examine, investigate, evaluate,
analyze, identify, or determine to define the purpose clearly.

 Ensure Relevance to Your Field:

• Tailor the objective to align with the field of study or discipline.
 …..Cont.

4.2. Specific Objectives of the study

a) The Essence
 The specific objectives in your thesis proposal break
down the general objective into smaller, precise,
and measurable objective/goals.
 These objectives define the steps you will take to
achieve your overall research aim.
 They guide your methodology and focus your data
collection and analysis.
 ……Cont.
b) How to Write Specific Objectives
 Start with the General Objective:
• Use the general objective as a foundation and think about the
key components or dimensions of the research problem.
 Be Precise and Specific:
• Each objective should address a specific aspect of your
research problems.
• Avoid broad statements; focus on measurable or observable
goals.
 Use Action-Oriented Verbs:
• Use clear, actionable verbs such as analyze, evaluate,
determine, compare, assess, explore, or identify.
 Focus on Feasibility:
• Keep your objectives realistic and achievable within the scope
C) Common Action Verbs for Specific Objectives
Descriptive Studies:
• Identify, describe, explore, determine………..

Comparative Studies:
• Compare, contrast, evaluate……………….

Causal Studies:
• Analyze, explain, investigate, examine.
 4. Research Questions (RQ)
a) The Essence
 The research questions in your thesis proposal guide
the direction of your study.
 They are derived from your research problem and
should be clear, specific, and focused on addressing
the gaps identified in the literature.
 These questions are essential because they inform the
design, methodology, and analysis of your research
 ……..Cont.

b) How to Formulate Research Questions

Align with Your Research Problem:
• Your research questions should directly address the problem
outlined in your problem statement and background.

Make Them Clear and Focused:

• Research questions should be specific, measurable, and
researchable. Avoid vague or overly broad questions.

Ensure They Are Researchable:

• The questions should lead to outcomes that are achievable
within the scope of your study.
 5. Significance/contribution of the Study

a) The Essence
The significance of your thesis outlines the importance
and potential contributions of your research.
It explains why your study matters, who will benefit
from it, and how it can fill gaps in knowledge or address
real-world problems.
This section justifies the relevance of your research,
both within the academic community and beyond.
 ……Cont.
b) How to Write the Significance of Your Thesis
 Identify the Contribution to Knowledge:
• Explain how your research adds to existing knowledge in your field.
Highlight how it builds upon previous studies or theories.

 Address Practical Relevance:

• Discuss the practical implications of your research. Who will benefit from
the findings? Consider policymakers, educators, business owners,
healthcare professionals, or specific communities.

 Discuss Expected Outcomes or Impact:

• Highlight what you hope to achieve with your research. Discuss the
potential outcomes or positive changes that could result from your
findings, even if they are theoretical or conceptual.
 6. Scope/delimitation of the study
a) The Essence
 The scope of your thesis defines the boundaries of your research.

 It specifies what your study will cover and, just what it will not

cover.
 It helps clarify the focus of your research by outlining the

parameters within which you will conduct your investigation.

 Stating the scope is important because it sets clear expectations for

your readers regarding the depth and breadth of your study.

 …..Cont.

b) Key Components to Include in the Scope

 Geographical Boundaries:

• Where will your research take place? Be clear about the

geographical area covered by your study.

 Time Boundaries :

• What time frame will your study cover? Specify the period during

which the data will be collected or analyzed.

 Population and/or Sample:

• Who will be involved in your study? Describe the population or

sample from which you will collect data.

 ……….Cont.

Thematic boundary/scope :–

• Examining selected good governance principles, the thematic

scope indicates those principles that will be of interest.

Key Variables or Themes:

What are the key variables, themes, or issues your study

will examine? This could relate to specific topics, factors, or

phenomena that you will investigate.

 7. Limitations of the study

a) The Essence
 The limitation section of your thesis outlines the factors
that could impact the validity or generalizability of your
research findings.
 This section is crucial because it provides transparency,
helping readers understand the constraints under which the
research was conducted.
 It also helps clarify areas where future research could
further explore the topic
 ……….Cont.
b) The Sources :
Possible sources of the limitations of include:-
Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the
researcher adapted.
Lack of access to the right data.

Poor choice and/or development of instruments

Sampling restriction

Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas

Usual time borne situation in the study site

 …..Cont.
c) How to State Limitations in Your Thesis
 Identify the Specific Limitations:
• Limitations can stem from various sources such as research
design, sample size, time constraints, data availability, and
methodology.
• Examples of limitations could include factors like sampling bias,
lack of generalizability, limited scope of the research.

 Acknowledge Constraints:
• Be honest and clear about what aspects of the study were
limited. For instance, you may not have been able to collect data
from a large enough sample or certain geographic locations due
 ……Cont.
Describe Impact of Limitations on the Study:
• Discuss how each limitation may affect the results, analysis,
or interpretation of the data.
• You should not just list the limitations but also explain their
potential influence on the outcomes of your research.

Offer Suggestions for Future Research:

• It is common to provide suggestions for future research that
could address the limitations of your study.
• This shows that you are aware of the areas that could be
improved or further explored.
 8. Definition of Terms or Concepts
a) The Essence – working definition
 In a thesis proposal, the Definition of Terms section is
used to clarify key concepts and terminology essential to
understanding your research.
 This ensures that readers interpret the terms consistently

within the context of your study.

 The technical terms or words and phrases having special
meanings need to be defined operationally by the help of
special dictionaries.
b) The structure
1. Choose the Terms Carefully
 Terms specific to your field of study.
 Terms that are unfamiliar, technical, or have multiple meanings.
 Terms Essential for understanding your research problem.
3. Arrange Terms Logically
 Alphabetical Order: Often preferred for ease of reference.
 Thematic Order: Group related terms together if that makes more sense
in your context.
4. Provide Clear Definitions
 Concise: Keep definitions short but comprehensive.
 Contextualized: Tailor definitions to fit the scope of your research.
 Cited, if Necessary: If you borrow a definition from a source, cite it
properly.
5. Use a Consistent Format
• Term 1: Provide the definition here. Specify how this term is used in the
study (e.g., "For the purpose of this study, [Term] refers to...").
9. Structure/Organization of the paper
 Organizing your thesis effectively involves following a
structured format that presents your research clearly and
logically.
 While specific formats may vary depending on your
institution and field of study, most theses follow a
standard structure.
 Below is a general guideline for organizing your thesis:-
 Indicate how the proposal/paper is organized.

 Mention which part/chapter deals with what…

Chapter - 2

Review of
Related
Literature
 Chapter 2- Review of Related Literature
Under the review of related literature, the
followings are the points to included :-
1. Conceptual Review

2. Theoretical Review

3. Empirical Review

4. Research Gap Identification

5. Conceptual Frameworks
 ……….Cont.
1. Conceptual Review
 A conceptual review is a type of literature review
that focuses on exploring and analyzing concepts,
frameworks within a particular field of study.
 It seeks to provide clarity, organize existing
conceptual knowledge, and identify gaps or
inconsistencies in the theoretical understanding of
a subject.
 ……….Cont.
Key Features of a Conceptual Review:
 Focus on Conceptual Constructs:
• Discusses the definitions, meanings, and evolution of key concepts.

• Explores how these concepts are used across studies or disciplines.

 Critical Examination:
• Evaluates how well existing concepts address real-world problems.

• Highlights contradictions or overlaps between different theories.

 Synthesis of Ideas:
• Combines and integrates concepts and ideas from various sources to
provide a holistic view.
• Proposes new conceptual frameworks or revisions to existing ones.
 ……….Cont.

2. Theoretical review
 A theoretical review is a type of literature review
that focuses on evaluating and synthesizing
existing theories related to a specific topic.
 It aims to explore the theoretical underpinnings of
a field, identify relationships between theories,
and assess their relevance, limitations, and
potential for further development.
 ……….Cont.
 Key Features of a Theoretical Review:
 Exploration of Existing Theories:
• Examines and compares different theoretical perspectives on a topic.

• Discusses the origins, evolution, and current status of these theories.

 Critical Evaluation:
• Analyzes the assumptions, strengths, and weaknesses of the theories.

 Synthesis and Integration:

• Combines insights from multiple theories to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the topic and synergies between theoretical
approaches.
 ……….Cont.
Purpose of a Theoretical Review: -
 To provide a foundation for understanding a research
problem from a theoretical perspective.
 To identify gaps in theoretical frameworks that require
empirical validation or further conceptual work.
 To guide researchers in selecting appropriate
theoretical models for their studies.
 To advance theoretical innovation and development in
a field.
 …….Cont.

3. Empirical review
 An empirical review is a detailed analysis of studies
that rely on empirical evidence, meaning data
collected through observation, experimentation, or
measurement.
 It systematically evaluates findings from primary
research articles to identify patterns, trends, and gaps
in knowledge, often serving as a foundation for
future research or practical application
 ……….Cont.
 Key Features of an Empirical Review:

1. Focus on Data-Driven Research:

• Reviews studies that include quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-
methods research.
• Emphasizes findings grounded in direct observation or
experimental data.

2. Analysis of Methodology:
• Evaluates the research design, data collection, and analysis
methods used in the studies.
• Considers the validity, reliability, and generalizability of the
findings.
 ……….Cont.

3. Thematic or Comparative Synthesis:

• Identifies common themes, relationships, or trends across studies.
• Highlights contradictory findings or inconsistencies across studies.

4. Identification of Research Gaps:

• Points out underexplored areas or unanswered questions.
• Recommends directions for future empirical work.

5. Application-Oriented Insights:
• Links findings to theoretical frameworks, practical applications, or
policy-making.
• Explores how empirical findings advance understanding in a specific
field.
 ……….Cont.
4. Research Gap
 A research gap refers to an area of a field of study
where insufficient or incomplete knowledge exists,
or where current understanding is inconsistent,
unclear, or outdated.
 Identifying research gaps is a crucial step in
academic research, as addressing these gaps helps
advance knowledge and contributes to solving real-
 ……….Cont.
 Types of Research Gaps:
 Knowledge Gap:
• A lack of information or understanding about a specific topic or issue.
• Example: Limited studies on the long-term effects of a newly
discovered drug.
 Theoretical Gap:
• Weaknesses or inconsistencies in existing theories.
• Example: A theory that fails to explain a newly observed phenomenon.
 Practical Gap:
• A lack of application of research findings to real-world problems.
• Example: Research on renewable energy technology that hasn’t been
implemented at scale.
 Methodological Gap:
• Limitations in the methods or approaches used in existing studies.
• Example: Overreliance on qualitative data when quantitative methods
could provide new insights.
 ……….Cont.
 How to Identify a Research Gap:
 Analyze Inconsistencies:
• Look for conflicting findings or debates within the field.

 Consider Emerging Issues:

• Pay attention to new trends, technologies, or societal challenges that
current research does not address.

 Consult Experts and Stakeholders:

• Discuss with peers, mentors, or practitioners to understand unaddressed
issues in the field.

 Review Calls for Research:

• Check recommendations in academic papers, research proposals, or
grant calls that highlight areas needing further exploration.
 ……….Cont.

5. Conceptual Frameworks
 A conceptual framework is a structured
representation of the key concepts, theories, and
relationships that guide a research study.
 It serves as a roadmap for the research, outlining

how the researcher views the topic, identifies

variables, and connects them to the research
objectives or hypotheses.
 ……….Cont.
Key Features of a Conceptual Framework:
 Foundation in Theory:
• Draws on existing theories or models to explain the
relationships between concepts.
• May adapt or combine multiple theories to suit the study's
context.
 Identification of Key Concepts/constructs:
• Highlights the main variables, constructs, or ideas relevant
to the research problem.
• Provides clear definitions and boundaries for these concepts.
 ……….Cont.
 Relationships Among Concepts:
• Explains how the identified concepts are related, often
through causal, correlational, or comparative connections.
• Uses diagrams, models, or narrative descriptions to
represent these relationships.
 Guidance for Research:
• Frames the study by linking research questions,
objectives, and hypotheses to the theoretical background.
• Helps in selecting appropriate methodologies and
interpreting findings.
Chapter - 3

Research
Methodology
 Chapter – 3: Research Methodology

3.1 Research Philosophical Foundation

a) The Essence
 What does Philosophy refers for?
 The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek words "philo-" (meaning love)
and “-sophia" (meaning wisdom), which can be translated as "the love of
wisdom."
 It is concerned with exploring the reasons behind what we believe and how we
understand the world.
 Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge,
reality, reason, mind.
 ……Cont.

b) There are three Philosophical Foundations :-

1) Ontological Foundation

2) Epistemological Foundation

3) Methodological Foundation
c) There are three major philosophical theories:-

1) Positivism ,

2) Interpretivism,

3) Pragmatism
 ……Cont.

3.2. Types of Research Designs:

1. Exploratory Research Design : -
• Used to explore a phenomenon, often in the early stages of research.
• Example: Conducting focus groups to understand customer
preferences.
2. Descriptive Research Design : -
• Aims to describe characteristics or functions of a phenomenon or
population.
• Example: A survey to determine the average age of people using a
fitness app.
3. Explanatory (Causal) Research Design : -
• Seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
• Example: Testing whether a new teaching method improves student
performance.
 …..Cont
3.3. Research Approaches
A) Quantitative Research Approach
 Quantitative research uses objective measurement to gather numeric data that
are used to answer questions or test predetermined hypotheses.
 Quantitative research approach requires a well-controlled setting in which the
investigator primarily uses positivist or post-positivist claims for developing
knowledge.
 The researcher employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys,
and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data.
 Quantitative research emanates from an objectivist position which holds that
109
reality exists independently of the researcher – the truth is ‘out there’.
 …..Cont.
 Key Features of Quantitative Research:
 Numerical Data:
• Focuses on quantifiable variables, such as percentages, frequencies, averages,
or statistical significance.
• Example: "What is the average income of residents in a city?"
 Objective Measurement:
• Data collection and analysis are structured to minimize researcher bias.
• Example: Using standardized questionnaires to gather data.
 Hypothesis Testing:
• Often involves testing specific hypotheses to determine relationships or
differences between variables.
• Example: "Does exercise reduce stress levels?"
 Large Sample Sizes:
• Typically involves larger samples to ensure generalizability of the findings.
 Use of Statistical Tools:
• Data is analyzed using mathematical and statistical methods to interpret
results.
 …..Cont.
 Structured Design:
• Research methods are pre-determined and follow a fixed protocol to
ensure consistency.
 Methods of Quantitative Research:
• Surveys and Questionnaires:
• Example: Conducting a customer satisfaction survey.
 Experiments:
• Controlled studies where variables are manipulated to observe effects on
a dependent variable.
• Example: Testing the impact of a new drug on blood pressure.
 Observational Studies:
• Quantitative observations of behaviors or phenomena.
• Example: Recording traffic flow at an intersection.
 Secondary Data Analysis:
• Using existing numerical data, such as census data or financial reports.
•
 ....Cont.

B) Qualitative Research Approach

 Qualitative research, in contrast, focuses on
understanding social phenomena from the perspective of
the human participants in natural settings.
 Qualitative research is a means for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.
 Qualitative research approach is a method of inquiry that
focuses on understanding people's experiences,
112
behaviors, and the meanings they attach to them.
 …..Cont.
 Key Features of Qualitative Research:
 Non-Numerical Data:
• Focuses on descriptive data, such as interviews, observations, or
open-ended survey responses.
• Example: Collecting stories or personal narratives about a life event.
 Subjective Interpretation:
• Data analysis is more interpretive, allowing for a deeper
understanding of meanings, feelings, and motivations.
• Example: Analyzing interview transcripts to identify recurring
themes.
 Contextual Understanding:
• Emphasizes understanding phenomena within their social, cultural,
or historical context.
• Example: Studying the cultural significance of rituals in a particular
community.
 ……Cont.
 Methods of Qualitative Research:
 Interviews:
• In-depth, open-ended conversations with individuals to explore their perspectives.

 Focus Groups:
• Group discussions guided by a facilitator to gather diverse views on a particular topic.

 Participant Observation:
• The researcher immerses themselves in the setting being studied and observes
behaviors and interactions.
• Example: A researcher living in a community to observe how people interact in daily
life.

• Case Studies:
• A detailed exploration of a single case or small group, providing in-depth insight.
• Example: Studying a particular school or organization to understand its culture and
challenges.
 ….Cont.

C) Mixed Research Approach

 Mixed research is an approach to inquiry that combines or
associates both qualitative and quantitative forms.
 It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and
quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a
study.
 Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing both kinds of
data; it also involves the use of both approaches so that the overall
strength of a study is greater than either qualitative or
quantitative research.
115
 ….Cont.
 A mixed method approach is one in which the researcher
tends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds
(e.g., consequence-oriented, problem-centered, and
pluralistic).
 It employs strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data
either Concurrently or sequentially to best understand
research problems.
 Generalize from a sample to a population and gain a richer,
contextual understanding of the phenomenon being
 ……..Cont.
Major Types of Mixed Research

Triangulation Strategy

Concurrent Embedded/Nested
Design Strategy
Transformative
Mixed Strategy
Research
Explanatory Strategy

Sequential
Exploratory Strategy
Design

Transformative
Strategy 117