Memory

Memory
It is the ability to take in information, store

it, and recall it at a later time. In

psychology, memory is broken into three
stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Stages of Memory
Encoding
the process of receiving, processing, and

combining information.
Encoding allows information from the

outside world to reach our senses in the

forms of chemical and physical stimuli.
There are several different ways of encoding
verbal information:
Structural encoding. It focuses on what

words look like. For instance, one might note

whether words are long or short, in
uppercase or lowercase, or handwritten or
typed.
Phonemic encoding. It focuses on how

words sound.
Semantic encoding. It focuses on the

meaning of words. Semantic encoding

requires a deeper level of processing
than structural or phonemic encoding
and usually results in better memory.
 Storage
It is the creation of a permanent record of
the encoded information.

Storage is the second memory stage or

process in which we maintain information
over periods of time.
Retrieval
It is the calling back of stored
information in response to some cue for
use in a process or activity.

The third process is the retrieval of

information that we have stored.
Retrieval
We must locate it and return it to our
consciousness. Some retrieval attempts
may be effortless due to the type of
information.
Types of Memory
1. Sensory Memory.

2. Short-Term Memory.

3. Long-Term Memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory allows individuals to
retain impressions of sensory information
after the original stimulus has ceased.
a) iconic memory (the visual sensory store)

b) echoic memory (the auditory sensory store)

c) haptic memory (the tactile sensory store)

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is also known as

working memory. It holds only a few items

(research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items)
and only lasts for about 20 seconds.
However, items can be moved from short-

term memory to long-term memory via

processes like rehearsal.
Short-Term Memory
An example of rehearsal is when someone
gives you a phone number verbally and you
say it to yourself repeatedly until you can
write it down. If someone interrupts your
rehearsal by asking a question, you can
easily forget the number, since it is only
being held in your short-term memory.
Chunking
A method called chunking can help to
increase the capacity of short-term
memory. Chunking combines small bits
of information into bigger, familiar
pieces.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories are all the memories
we hold for periods of time longer than a
few seconds.

Long-term memory encompasses

everything from what we learned in first
grade to our old addresses to what we
wore to work yesterday.
Long-Term Memory
It memory has an incredibly vast
storage capacity, and some memories
can last from the time they are created
until we die.
Forgetting
Forgetting or disremembering is the

apparent loss or modification of

information already encoded and stored
in an individual's memory.
It is a spontaneous or gradual process in

which old memories are unable to be

recalled from memory storage
Causes of Forgetting
Ineffective Encoding.
 The way information is encoded affects the ability to

remember it.
 Processing information at a deeper level makes it

harder to forget.
 If a student thinks about the meaning of the

concepts in her textbook rather than just reading

them, she’ll remember them better when the final
exam comes around.
Decay.
 According to decay theory, memory fades with time.

 Decay explains the loss of memories from sensory and

short-term memory.
 However, loss of long-term memories does not seem to

depend on how much time has gone by since the

information was learned.
 People might easily remember their first day in junior

high school but completely forget what they learned in

class last Tuesday.
Interference.
According to this theory, people forget

information because of interference from

other learned information.
There are two types of interference:

1. retroactive

2. proactive
Retroactive interference happens when

newly learned information makes people

forget old information.
Proactive interference happens when

old information makes people forget newly

learned information.
Physical Injury or Trauma.

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to

remember events that occur after an injury
or traumatic event.

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to

remember events that occurred before an
injury or traumatic event.
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting may also result from failure

to retrieve information in memory.

Motivated Forgetting
Psychologist Sigmund Freud proposed that

people forget because they push unpleasant

or intolerable thoughts and feelings deep
into their unconscious.
He called this phenomenon repression.

The idea that people forget things they don’t

want to remember is also called motivated

forgetting or psychogenic amnesia.
 Enhancing Memory
Memory can be enhanced in a variety of ways,
including:
rehearsal
over learning
distributed practice
minimizing interference
deep processing
organizing information
mnemonic devices
visual imagery
Rehearsal. Practicing material helps people
remember it. The more
people rehearse information, the more likely
they are to remember that information.

Over learning. Over learning, or continuing

to practice material even after it is learned,
also increases retention.
 Distributed Practice.
Learning material in short sessions over a long

period is called distributed practice or the

“spacing effect.”
This process is the opposite of cramming,

which is also called massed practice.

Distributed practice is more effective than
cramming for retaining information.
 Minimizing Interference.
People remember material better if they

don’t learn other, similar material right

before or soon after their effort.
One way to minimize interference is to

sleep after studying material, since people

can’t learn new material while sleeping.
Deep Processing.
People also remember material better if

they pay attention while learning it and

think about its meaning rather than
memorize the information by rote.
One way to process information deeply is

to use a method called elaboration.

Elaboration involves associating the

material being learned with other

material.
For example, people could associate the

new material with previously learned

material, with an anecdote from their own
lives, with a striking example, or with a
movie they recently saw.
Organizing Material
Organizing material in a coherent way helps

people to remember it:

Organizing material hierarchically or in

categories and subcategories can be

particularly helpful.
The way an outline is organized, for example,

usually helps people to remember the material

in it.
Chunking material into segments is
also helpful. People often remember
long strings of numbers, such as social
security numbers, by chunking them
into two-, three-, or four-digit segments.
 Mnemonics. Mnemonics are strategies for improving
memory. Different kinds of mnemonics include:
 Acronyms. Acronyms are words made out of the first letters

of several words. For example, to remember the colors of

the spectrum, people often use the name ROY G. BIV,
 Acrostics. Acrostics are sentences or phrases in which each

word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue. For

example, the rather strange phrase Roses on yachts grow
better in vinegar also helps to remember the colors of the
spectrum.
Narrative methods. Narrative methods involve

making up a story to remember a list of words.

Rhymes. Rhymes are also good mnemonics. For

example, the familiar rhyme that begins, “Thirty

days has September . . .” is a mnemonic for
remembering the number of days in each month.