SURVE

YS SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
• A survey
SURVE
is an examination of an aggregate of units.

Y
• A group of students is an example of an aggregate.
• The examination usually involves counting members of the aggregate and characteristics of the members.
• Inepidemiological surveys, characteristics might include the presence of particular diseases or death (discrete), or production
parameters (continuous) suchas weight or height.

• Surveys can be undertaken on a sample of the population.

• Examples:
• A cross-sectional survey records events occurring at a particular point in time.
• An important application is estimation of prevalence of clinical disease, infection, or
seropositive animals from samples of animal population
• Alongitudinal survey records events over a period of time. Theseeventsmay be recorded prospectively from
the present into the future; or may be a retrospective record of past events.
• A particular type of diagnostic survey is screening.
CENSUS

a) The survey in which we investigate all animals/humans of a population is known as

census.
b) Through census, we measure the exact distribution of a variable in a population.
c) Censuses are expensive and difficult to conduct.
• For Example:
• Jasper et al. (1979) surveyed 2400 out of 2800 farms in California to determine the
prevalence of mycoplasmal mastitis in dairy cows.
Basic
Terminologies
◦ Population
A set of all individuals or objects having some common observable characteristics.
◦ Sample
A sample is subset of population with which we can draw valid inferences
regarding
population parameters.
◦ Parameter
Parameters are the true values of the population under study
◦ Statistics
Statistics are true values of samples.
◦ Sampling:
A subset or part of the population is a sample from that population. The process
of selecting the sample is called sampling.
Basic
Terminologies
Target population:
◦
▶It is the total population about which information is required or it is
population at risk.
◦ Study Population
▶ It is the population from which sample is drawn. It is the actual sampling
frame, from which we randomly drew our sample.
◦ Sampling frame:
▶ Complete list of all sampling units called sampling frame. e.g. Complete list
of men, women, children, younger, elders called sampling
frame.
◦ Sampling
▶ This Units
forms the basis of sampling procedure. They are the smaller parts
the population
of which are distinct, unambiguous and non-overlapping e.g.
children less than 5 years of age, households, schools etc. Each member of
sampling frame is sampling unit.
◦ Elementary unit:
▶ The study population consists of elementary units which cannot be divided
further e.g individual
Basic Terminologies
◦ Stratum:
◦ A collection of elementary units, grouped according to a common characteristic, is a
stratum.

◦ Sampling fraction
◦ The sampling fraction is the ratio of sample size to study population size. Thus, if
10 individuals were chosen from 1000, the sampling fraction would be 1 %.
Sampling
theory
◦ An aggregate of units can be
divided into representative
subunits, and that
characteristics of the aggregate
can be estimated from the
subunits.
Sampling in Epidemiology
◦ Why?
◦ Unable to study all members of a population
◦ Reduce bias
◦ Save time and money
◦ Measurements may be better in sample than in entire
population
◦ Feasibility
 When and Where sampling technique
is appropriate
◦Vast data
– No. of units is very large-Sampling economizes money, time
&
effort
◦When utmost accuracy is not required
– suitable in those situations where 100% accuracy is not
required
◦Where census is impossible
-- not enumerating all individuals
◦Homogeneity
– if all the units are alike. Sampling is very easy to use
OBJECTIVE OF
SAMPLING
•The objective of samplingis to provide an
unbiased estimate of the variable that is
being measured in the population.
THINGS THAT CAN LEAD TO BIASED
ESTIMATES
•lists of members of the frame are incomplete;
•information is obsolescent;
•segments of the frame are untraceable;
•there is lack of co-operation by some members of the
frame;
•sampling procedures are not random.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING

NON-PROBABILITY PROBABILITY SAMPLING

SAMPLING • in which selection of sample is made
using a deliberate, unbiased process,
• in which the choice of the
so that each sampling unit in a
sample
group has an equal probability of
is left to the investigator. being selected.
• The results will be unbiased and
• The main disadvantage is that the effect of sampling variation will
‘representativeness’ cannot be minimal.
be quantified.
NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
• In non-probability sampling, researchers choose
samples according to his on choice.

• Researcher select study population according to his

own will.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience Purposive Sampling

Sampling

Judgeme Snow ball Quota

nt sampling
samplin
g
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
•It is the collection of easily accessible sampling units. In convenience sampling,
it
is very unlikely that the sample will be the truly representative of the study
population.
• A non-random collection of sampling units from an undefined sampling
frame
• Advantage: Convenient and easy to perform
• Disadvantage: Not statistical justification for sample
• For Example
• A university researcher wants to survey students’ opinions about campus
facilities. Instead of reaching out to a random sample of students from all
faculties, they decide to survey students in the campus library because
they’re easily accessible.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:
 Judgmental sampling:
It is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and
the purpose of the study. The subjects are selected because of some
characteristic. It is sampling for some specific purpose.

For example:
A researcher who is undertaking a tuberculosis test on several
individuals may be asked to take blood samples from selected samples
for titration of antibodies against bacteria and viruses. This is also
error based.
 ▶Snowball sampling is often used for hard-to-reach
or niche populations. Initial participants help the
researcher connect with additional participants,
creating a “snowball” effect. This method is valuable
for studying specific networks but may lead to non-
SNOW BALL representative samples.

SAMPLING ▶Example: A sociologist is studying the experiences of

migrant workers in a particular city. Since this group is
difficult to locate, the researcher interviews a few
migrant workers and then asks them to refer others
they know.
QUOTA SAMPLING

Quota sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups and

ensuring that each subgroup is represented in the sample. This
method helps make the sample more representative than pure
convenience sampling but can still introduce biases.

For example:

Equal quota of young and old people.

PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
In which samples are selected randomly from study population.

• For Example: Through lucky draw, random table and computer etc.
• Simple Random Sampling: n=1.962Pexp (1-Pexp)

d2

• Where:
n= Required sample size

P exp = expected prevalence

d= desired absolute precision

 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
•Simple random sampling
• Advantages
• Simple process and easy to understand
• Easy calculation of means and variance

• Disadvantages
• Not most efficient method, that is, not the most precise
estimate for the cost
• Requires knowledge of the complete sampling frame
• Cannot always be certain that there is an equal chance of
selection
• Non respondents or refusals
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• It involves selection of sampling at equal intervals, the

first individual being selected randomly.

•For Example:
•If one person in every 100 were required, then the first
animal would be selected randomly from first 100.
 SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
•The sampling units are spaced regularly
throughout the sampling frame, e.g., every
3rd
unit would be selected

•May be used as either probability sample or

not
•Not a probability sample unless the starting point
is randomly selected
•Non-random sample if the starting point is
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
•Advantages
•Sampling frame does not need to be defined in
advance
•Easier to implement in the field
•If there are unrecognized trends in the sample frame,
systematic sample ensure coverage of the
spectrum of units
•Disadvantages
•Variance cannot be estimated unless assumptions are
made
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• Estimate HIV prevalence in

children born during a specified period
at a hospital
1. Impossible to construct sampling frame in advance
2. Select a random number between some pre-specified bounds
3. Beginning with the random number chosen, take every 5th birth
and measure for HIV infection
STRATIFIED SAMPLING

• In which sample is obtained by dividing the study population

into exclusive groups, then sampling units selected randomly
from
those groups.

•For Example:
•Different ranges of herds or flock size, or different
geographical regions.
Example of stratified
random sampling
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

•The sampling frame comprises groups,

or strata, with certain characteristics
•A sample of units are selected from
each group or stratum
Stratified Random selection for drug trail in hypertension

Mild Moderate Severe

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

•Advantages
• Assures that certain subgroups are represented in a
sample
• Alows investigator to estimate parameters in different
strata
• More precise estimates of the parameters because
strata are more homogeneous, e.g., sma ler variance
within strata
• Strata of interest can be sampled most intensively, e.g.,
groups with greatest variance
• Administrative advantages
•Disadvantages
• Lossof precision if smal number of units is sampled from
strata
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

• Assess dietary intake in adolescents

1. Define three age groups: 11-13, 14-16, 17-19
2. Stratify age groups by sex
3. Obtain list of children in this age range from schools
4. Randomly select children from each of the 6 strata
until sample size is obtained
5. Measure dietary intake
CLUSTER SAMPLING

• Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire

population is divided into groups, or clusters and a random
sample
of these clusters are selected.

•For Example:
•In a city of population over 2 million, we form clusters of
the target population, than select randomly from these
clusters.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
•Advantages
•The entire sampling frame need not be
enumerated in advance, just the clusters once
identified
•More economical in terms of resources than
simple random sampling
•Disadvantages
•Loss of precision, i.e., wider variance, but can
be accounted for with larger number of clusters
 CLUSTER SAMPLING

• Cluster sampling
• Estimate the prevalence of dental
caries in school children
1. Among the schools in the catchments area, list all
of the classrooms in each school
2. Take a simple random sample of classrooms, or
cluster of children
3. Examine all children in a cluster for dental caries
4. Estimate prevalence of caries within clusters than
combine in overall estimate, with variance
 Cluster
sampling

one- two- multista

stage stage ge
cluster cluster cluster
samplin samplin samplin
g g g
 ONE-STAGE
•ItCLUSTERSAMPLING
includes selecting a few clusters, and sampling the individuals only
in these
Clusters

•For example,
• Animals in a few villages or herds could be
sampled. This is cluster sampling.
• Commonly, all animals in each selected cluster are sampled;
this is one-stage cluster sampling.
 TWO-STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLING

•A sample of clusters can be selected, followed by

sub-sampling of
some individuals in the clusters (in contrast
to all in one-stag
cluster sampling).
• This procedure is therefore called two-stage
cluster sampling;

•Clusters are the primary units

•Selected members of the sub-samples are
the secondary units.
MULTISTAG CLUSTER SAMPLING

• If the secondary units are the individual members of the

study population, there is no point in going
further.
• However, if secondary units from two stage clustering consist
of groups of population members further
stages of sampling could be undertaken,
corresponding to progressively higher levels of sub-
sampling. This is called multistage cluster sampling.
• For example, sampling regions,
then dairy farms in each selected region, then
cows on each selected farm.
• The sampling technique at each stage is usua ly
simple random sampling.
 MULTISTAGE CLUSTER SAMPLING

•Multistage sampling
•Similar to cluster sampling except that there are
two sampling events, instead of one
• Primary units are randomly selected
• Individual units within primary units randomly selected for
measurement
 MULTISTAGE CLUSTER SAMPLING

•Multistage sampling
•Estimate the prevalence of dental caries in school children
1. Randomly select a few districts or towns from the region.
2. From each selected district, randomly choose several schools.
3. Within each selected school, randomly pick certain classes (e.g., grades 1-
5)
4. In each selected class, randomly sample a number of students to assess
for dental caries.
 Random sampling:
Availability sampling: every combination of a
selecting on the basis of given size has an equal
convenience. chance of being chosen.

Cluster sampling:
dividing the population into Snowball sampling:
clusters, typically on the asking individuals studied
basis of geography, and to provide references to
taking a sample of the others.
clusters.
Stratified sampling:
Multi-stage sampling: dividing the population
sampling subunits into groups on the basis of
within sampled units. some characteristic and
then sampling each group.

Quota sampling: Systematic sampling:

selecting fixed numbers choosing every nth item from
of a list, beginning at a random
units in each of a number point.
of categories.
 IMPERFECT TESTS

•Frequently, surveys utilize diagnostic tests to identify

disease, and such tests are not 'perfect'; that is,
they have a diagnostic sensitivity and diagnostic
specificity less than 100%.
•Therefore, generate false-negative and false-
positive results, respectively, and thus producing
estimates of test prevalence, rather than
true prevalence.
WHAT SAMPLE SIZE SHOULD BE
SELECTED ?

•The question that should be

answered in all sample surveys is
'How many individuals should bechosen for the
survey?’

•The choosing of sample size depends on:

• Non-statistical considerations: It include the availability of
manpower
and
sampling frames.
• Statisticalconsiderations: These include the precision of the
estimate of prevalence and the
ANY QUESTIONS