Chapter One

Introduction to Computer
Networks

Data Communication and Computer

Networks
 Computer Network and its Applications
 At its most elementary level, a computer network
consists of two computers connected to each other by
a cable that allows them to share data.
 All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated,
stems from that simple system.
 Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to
share data in a timely fashion.
 Personal computers are powerful tools that can process
and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but they
do not allow users to share that data efficiently.
 Before networks, users needed either to print out
documents or copy document files to a disk for others to
2
edit or use them.
 Contd.
 If others made changes to the document, there was
no easy way to merge the changes.
 This was, and still is, known as "working in a stand-alone
environment."
 Copying files onto floppy disks and giving them to
others to copy onto their computers was
sometimes referred to as the "sneakernet." This
early form of computer networking is one that
many of us have used and perhaps still use today

3
 Contd.

connecting together of computers and other

devices is called a network, and the concept

of connected computers sharing resources is

called networking.

4
Contd.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if

they are able to exchange information

Components of a compute networks
Hardware:
 Computer Media:
 Network card  Cable
 Routers  Wire
 Modem …  Microwave …

Software: Network Design:

 Network OS Logical layout
 Utilities … Physical layout …

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Uses of Computer Networks

6
Contd.
1. Resource sharing
 the goal of network is to make all programs, equipment,
and especially data available to anyone on the network
without regard to the physical location of the resource and
the user.
 An obvious and widespread example is having a group of
office workers share a common printer.
 None of the individuals really needs a private printer, and
a high-volume networked printer is often cheaper, faster,
and easier to maintain than a large collection of individual
printers.
 Information sharing is more important than physical
7 resource sharing
Contd.
2. Means of communication
E-mail
Videoconferencing
Chatting
E-commerce
Game
….

3. Centralizing administration and support

Database
Banks
….

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Network Types

There are basically three categories of

networks based on its size and geographical

coverage

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 LAN
 A local area network (LAN) is the basic building block
of any computer network.
 A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected
by a cable) to complex (hundreds of connected
computers and peripherals throughout a major
corporation).
 The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined
to a limited geographic area.
 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and
links the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization and the type
of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video
peripherals.
10
Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers
 Contd.

11
 Contd.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between
personal computers or workstations. The resources to be
shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g.,
an application program), or data.
 In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of

networks by their transmission media and

topology.
 In general, a given LAN will use only one type of
transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies
are bus, ring, and star.
 Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second
(Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or

12
1000 Mbps.
 Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.
 WAN
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance

transmission of data, image, audio, and video

information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
 A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that

connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that

connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally
refer to the first as a switched WAN and to the second
as a point-to-point WAN
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 Contd.

 The switched WAN connects the end systems, which

usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting

device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.

 The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a

telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home

computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider

(lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet

access.
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15
 MAN
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size

between a LAN and a WAN.

 It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.

 It is designed for customers who need a high-speed

connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints
spread over a city or part of city.
 A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone

company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to

the customer (we will discuss DSL in later chapters) .
 Another example is the cable TV network that originally was

designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-
16 speed data connection to the Internet.
 Interconnection of Networks:
Internetwork
 Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a
LAN in isolation; they are connected to one
another.
 When two or more networks are connected,
they become an internetwork, or internet.

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 Network, internet, and Internet
A network is a group of connected communicating

devices such as computers and printers.

An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or

more networks that can communicate with each other.

The most notable internet is called the Internet

(uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than

hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.
Private individuals as well as various organizations

such as government agencies, schools, research

facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100
countries use the Internet.
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19
 Network Type Based on Connection
 A network is two or more devices connected through links.

 A link is a communications pathway that transfers data

from one device to another.

 For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link

as a line drawn between two points.

 For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
 There are two possible types of connections: point-to-

point and multipoint.

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 1. Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link

between two devices.

 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
 Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of

wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,

such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
 When you change television channels by infrared
remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
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 2. Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one

in which more than two specific devices share a

single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
 If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is

a spatially shared connection.

 If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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 Network Topology
 The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid

out physically.

 Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

topology.

 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of

the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually

called nodes) to one another.

 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and

23 ring
 A.Star Topology
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-

point link only to a central controller, usually called a

hub/switch.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only

between the two devices it connects.

 The devices are not directly linked to one another.

 Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow

direct traffic between devices.

 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants

to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,

24
which then relays the data to the other connected device
 Contd.
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.

 In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to

connect it to any number of others.

 This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.

 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves,

and deletions involve only one connection: between that

device and the hub.
 Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only

that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor
also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to
25 monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Contd.

A SIMPLE STAR TOPOLOGY

A HIERARCHICAL STAR TOPOLOGY
26
 Contd.
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency

of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.

 If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each

node must be linked to a central hub.

 For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star

than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

 High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central

hub.
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 B. Bus Topology
 A bus topology, is multipoint connection.

 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a

network
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

 A drop line is a connection running between the device and the

main cable.

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Contd.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the

main cable or punctures the sheathing of a

cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
 As a signal travels along the backbone, some of

its energy is transformed into heat.

 Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it

travels farther and farther.

 For this reason there is a limit on the number of

taps a bus can support and on the distance

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between those taps.
Advantages of Bus Topology.
 Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.

 Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,

then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths.

 In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star

topologies.
 In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room

require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub.
 In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone

cable stretches through the entire facility.

 Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point

on the backbone.
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Disadvantages of Bus Topology.
1. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to
be optimally efficient at installation.
 It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
2. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of
devices connected to a given length of cable.
 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or
replacement of the backbone.
 In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission,

even between devices on the same side of the problem.

 The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of

origin, creating noise in both directions.

 Bus topology was one of the first topologies used in the design of

early local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but
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they are less popular now.
 C. Ring Topology
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-

point connection with only the two devices on either side of

it.

 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from

device to device, until it reaches its destination.

 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

 When a device receives a signal intended for another

device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them

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along
Contd.

 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors
(either physically or logically).
 To add or delete a device requires changing only
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Contd.
 The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).
 In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

 Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.

 In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station)

can disable the entire network.

 This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch

capable of closing off the break.

 Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area

network Token Ring.

 Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less
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popular.
D. Mesh topology
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated

point-to-point link to every other device.

 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected

mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each

node must be connected to every other node.
 Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must

be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must

be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical
links.
 However, if each physical link allows communication in

35 both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the

Contd.
 A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.

 First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection

can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
 Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it

does not incapacitate the entire system.

 Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every

message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient

sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining
access to messages.
 Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault
isolation easy.
 Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This

facility enables the network manager to discover the precise

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location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Contd.
 The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount

of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.

 First, because every device must be connected to every other

device, installation and reconnection are difficult.

 Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the

available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.

 Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports

and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

 For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a

limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the

main computers of a hybrid network that can include several
37 other topologies.
Contd.
 One practical example of a mesh topology is the
connection of telephone regional offices in which each
regional office needs to be connected to every other
regional office

Mesh topology

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 E. Hybrid Topology
 A network can be hybrid. For example, we can

have a main star topology with each branch

connecting several stations in a bus topology
(star-bus topology)

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Network Models by Capability
1. Client/Server Model
 Microcomputer users, or clients, share services of
a centralized computer called a server.

40
Contd.
2. Peer-to-Peer Model

 Computers share equally with one another without

having to rely on a central server.

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 Client-server model

Fig. Two clients using a single server at a time

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 Client/Server
 A distinction exists between computers that make
available network resources (servers) and those
computers that use the resources (clients or
workstations).
Pros:
 Very secure
 Centralized servers easy to manage
 Physically centralized
 Secure OS
 Better performance
 Centralized backups
 Reliability
 Simple job to do plus built in redundancy

Cons:
 Require professional administration
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 More hardware intensive
 Peer-to-Peer (p2p)
 Computers on the network communicate with each
others as equals and each computer is responsible
for making its own resources available to other
computers on the network.
Pros:
 Uses less expensive computer networks
 Easy to administer
 No NOS (network operating system) required
 More built-in redundancy
 Shared resources – some machine will have what you need

Cons:
 Individual user performance easily affected
 Not very secure
 Tragedy of the commons – no guarantee others will administer their resources
properly (almost guaranteed with over 10 machines)
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 Hard to back up.
 Client/Server vs. Peer-to-Peer:
Advantages and Disadvantages
Client/Server Model Peer-to-Peer Model
Advantages: Advantages:
 Very secure OS.  Uses less expensive networks.
 Better performance.  Easy to administer.
 Centralized servers, easy  Contain both network operating
to manage. system and application software.
 Centralized backups.  Ideal for small business and home
 High reliability. users (up to 10 computers).

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
 Expensive administration.  Individual user performance easily
 More hardware intensive. affected.
 Not very secure.
 Hard to back up.
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 Protocols and Standards
A protocol is a set of rules that
govern data communications. It
defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when
it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing
Syntax – structure or format of
data
Semantics – meaning of each
46
of field
52
 Purposes of network protocol

Computers need to send data

between themselves so that,
For example, email can be
exchanged and the Internet can
function.
When two devices want to
successfully communicate, they
must agree to follow some rules
about the way they will do it.
These are known as protocols.
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of
52
 Protocols and Standards (Cont’d)
Standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers
to ensure interconnectivity.
Data communication standards fall
into two categories:
De facto – are those that have not been
approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through
widespread use.
De jure – these have been legislated by
48 an officially recognized body.
of
52
 Types of Network Protocols
Communication protocols
include basic data
communication tools like TCP/IP
and HTTP.
Security protocols include
HTTPS, SFTP, and SSL.
Management protocols
maintain and govern the
49
of network through protocols such
52
 Common network
protocols
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ...
Domain Name System (DNS) ...
File Transfer Protocol/Secure
(FTP/S) ...
Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure
(HTTP/S) ...
Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP) ...
Post Office Protocol (POP3) ...
Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) ...
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
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