Revision on Boolean Algebra & K-map

•1.1 Basic logic gates

• 1.2 Boolean algebra
• 1.3 Logic Circuit and Boolean Expression
•1.4 Logic function – SOP, POS, minterm,
maxterm, canonical form
• 1.5 Minimization using Boolean algebra
• 1.6 Karnaugh map
• 1.7 Minimization using Karnaugh map
• 1.8 Logic functions with don’t care conditions
1
1.1 Basic Logic Gates
OR gate AND gate NOT gate
Binary/Unary Binary Binary Unary
operator?

Symbols 1: + 1: · 1: ’

3: -
2: 2: ^ 2: ~
3: absence of an operator

Examples 1: a + b 1: a · b 1: a’
2: a b 2: a ^ b 2: ~a
3: ab 3:
Logic Gate
Symbol

Truth table of OR Truth table of AND Truth table of NOT

a b a +b a b ab a
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Negated Gates

NAND
“ b
Operation NOR XOR XNOR
a b (ab)’ (a + b)’ a b
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
Logic Gate
Symbol

3
 1.2 Boolean Algebra

• A set of element S with at

least two
different elements (x , y) satisfying
binary operations (+) and (.) .

• ForBoolean algebra in which S= {0,1}, the

formulation is referred as switching
function.

4
 Basic Postulates

If x,y S,
x +y =y +x
x. y = y. x commutative

If x,y,z S,
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
x . (y . z) = (x . y) . z
associative

If x,y,z S,
x . (y+ z) = (x . y) + (x . z)
x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z)
distributive 5
 Distributive Law
• Proof
x + y.z = (x + y) . (x + z)

x y z y.z x + y.z x+y x+z (x + y) . (x + z)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

6
Duality

• If an expression is valid in Boolean algebra, the dual

of the expression is also valid.

• Principle of duality:
0. x= 1 +x = 1
0
0 +x =
1. x=
xx +x =
xx . x
x x + x’ =
=xx.
1
x’ = 0
The expressions are interchangeable by replacing “0” by “1” and “+”
by “ . ” .
7
Theore
m
Idempotent
x+x=x x. x=
Involution x
(x’ )’= x
Absorption
x + xy = x x (x+ y) =
x
Logical adjacency
xy + xy’ = x

DeMorgan (x + y) = x y xy = x
+ y
• The complement of sum is equal to the product of the
complement
• The complement of product is equal to the sum of the 8
complement
DeMorg
an X Y X + X Y
0 0 Y 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0

X Y - -
X Y X Y+

0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

Note X+ Y X+ Y and X Y X , a very common

that Y 9
mistake
1.3 Logic Circuit and Boolean
Expression

Boolean expression from a logic circuit

• Write down the output expression from all

logic operators
• The Boolean function of this circuit is A (B
+ CD)
• Construct a truth table for above logic 1
circuit 0
 Truth table for a logic circuit
Completed solution
for a logic circuit
design
must include:

Examples of numbering systems Inputs Output 1. Boolean Algebra

Decimal Hexadecimal A B C D A(B+CD) 2. Circuit
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 schematic 3.
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 Truth table
2 2 0 0 1 0 0
3 3 0 0 1 1 0
For the truth table,
4 4 0 1 0 0 0
find the output as
5 5 0 1 0 1 0
6 6 0 1 1 0 0
a following:
7 7 0 1 1 1 0 1. Write down all
8 8 1 0 0 0 0 possible input
9 9 1 0 0 1 0
10 A 1 0 1 0 0 combinations
11 B 1 0 1 1 1
2 . Write down the
12 C 1 1 0 0 1
final stage
13 D 1 1 0 1 1
output (i.e. A( B
14 E 1 1 1 0 1
+ CD))
15 F 1 1 1 1 1
Boolean function Truth Table
Example: f(x,y,z)=xy’+x’z’

Input(s) Output
x y z xy’ x’z’ xy’ + x’z’
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
1
2
 Truth Table  Boolean function

Inputs Output
a b c f
0 0 0 0 f is 1 if {(a = 0) AND (b = 0) AND (c = 1)}
OR
0 0 1 1
{(a = 1) AND (b = 0) AND (c = 0)} OR
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 {(a = 1) AND (b = 0) AND (c = 1)}

1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 f(a,b,c) = a’b’c + ab’c’ + ab’c
1 1 0 0
Is it the simplest form?
1 1 1 0

1
3
1.4 Logic Function - SOP and POS

Logic functions are generally expressed with

least number of literals (variables).

• Sum of products (SOP)

f(a,b,c,d) = ab’c + b’d’ + a’cd

• Product of sums (POS)

f(a,b,c,d) = (a’ + b + c)(b’ + c + d’)(a +
c’)

1
4
1.4.1 Minterm and Maxterm
Minterm :- For a function of n variables, if a product term contains
all n
variables exactly one time in its complemented or
uncomplemented form, the product term is called minterm.
Complement = 0 and
Uncomplement =1.
Function Minterm Not Not
minterm minterm
f( A, B, C) A’ B’ C (A B)’ C A’B’ or AABC

Maxterm :- If a sum term of a function of n variables contains all n

variables exactly one time in its complemented or
uncomplemented form, the sum term is called a maxterm.
Complement = 1 and Uncomplement =0.
Function Maxterm Not Not maxterm
maxterm
f( A, B, C) A’+ B’+ C (A + B)’ C A’+ B’ or
Noted that the minterm and maxterm cannotA’+B+B+C
be simplified.
15
 Minterms and maxterms for 3
variables logic
function
Minterms Maxterms
x y z Term designatio term designatio
n n
0 0 0 x’y’z’ m0 x +y +z M0
0 0 1 x’y’z m1 x + y + z’ M1
0 1 0 x’yz’ m2 x + y’ + z M2
0 1 1 x’yz m3 x + y’ + z’ M3
1 0 0 xy’z’ m4 x’ + y + z M4
1 0 1 xy’z m5 x’ + y + z’ M5
1 1 0 xyz’ m6 x’ + y’ + z M6
1 1 1 xyz m7 x’ + y’ + z’ M7

The number of minterms and maxterm of a logic function of n

variables equals to 2n, e.g. f(a,b,c,d)  16 minterms (maxterms);
f(a,b,c,d,e)  32 minterms (maxterms). 1
6
1.4.2 Canonical form
The canonical form of a logic function is a
presentation in either minterms of
maxterms.
In minterm form (with logic output “1”):
f (A, B, C) = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
Minterm Code Number
A’BC’ 010 m2
ABC’ 110 m6
A’BC 011 m3
ABC 111 m7

f (A, B, C) = m2 + m3 + m6 + m7

Canonical form f (A, B, C) = Σ m(2,3,6,7)

1
Noted for minterm: Complement = 0 and Uncomplement 7
The canonical form of a logic function is a
presentation in either minterms of
maxterms.
In maxterm form (with logic output “0”):
f (A, B, C) = (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B +
Maxterm Code Number C)
A +B + C 000
M0
A + B + C’ 001
M1
A’ + B + C 100
M4
A’ + B + C’ 101
M5
f (A, B, C) =
M0M1M4M5
Canonical form f (A, B, C) = Ⅱ M (0, 1, 4, 5)
1
Noted for maxterm: Complement = 1 and 8
Canonical SOP representation:

f (a, b, c) = a + bc
= a(b + b) + bc(a + a)

= ab(c + c) + ab(c + c) + bc(a +

a)

= abc + abc + abc + abc + abc + abc

= m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7

f (a, b, c) = Σ m(1,4,5,6,7)

1
9
 Canonical POS representation:

f (x, y, z) = xy + xz
= (xy + x)(xy + z) = (x + x)(y + x)(x + z)(y + z)

= (x + y)(x + z)(y + z) = (x + y + zz)(x + z + yy)(y + z + xx)

= (x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + z + y)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)

f (x,y,z) = M 0 M 2 M 4 M 5 = ⅡM(0,2,4,5)

2
0
Conversion between canonical
forms

Relationship

maxtermi = mintermi (i.e. Mi = mi)

mintermi = maxtermi (i.e. mi = Mi)

e.g. M3’ = (a + b’ + c’)

= a’bc (De Morgan’s Theorem)
= m3
2
1
Canonical form conversion: SOP 
POS
For minterm representation (choose all the terms x y z f
with output 1): 0
0 0 0

f (x , y , z) = xyz + xyz + xyz + xyz 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0
f (x, y,z) = m1 + m4 + m5 + m7 = Σm(1,4,5,7) 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
For maxterm representation (choose all the terms
with output 0): 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
f (x, y, z) = xyz + xyz + xyz + xyz
1 1 1 1
f (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) = xyz + xyz + xyz +
xyz
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)
f (x, y, z) = M 0 M 2 M 3 M 6 = ⅡM (0,2,3,6)

Noted that for maxterm the uncomplemented variable = 0,

complemented variable = 1
22
1.5 Minimization using Boolean Algebra

• Obtain a simple (or simplest) logic circuit

• Reduce the cost of production
>Less logic gate ICs required
>PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
 size reduced
• Reduce the power consumption
 longer battery usage time
 Example:
Given 4 equivalent Boolean functions f1 to f4 expressed in
SOP form already (to be proved in later session).

f1(a,b,c) = a’bc’ + a’bc + ab’c’ + ab’c + abc (5

product terms, 15 literals)

f2(a,b,c) = a’b + ab’ +abc (3 product terms, 7 literals)

f3(a,b,c) = a’b + ab’ +ac (3 product terms, 6 literals)
f4(a,b,c) = a’b + ab’ +bc (3 product terms, 6 literals)
Both f3 & f4 are the minima
How can you simplify f1 to f3?
24
 Simplification

f1(a,b,c) = a’bc’ + a’bc + ab’c’+ ab’c + abc

= (a’bc’+ a’bc) + (ab’c’ + ab’c) + abc
= a’b + ab’ + abc = f2
= a’b + a(b’ + bc)
= a’b + a(b’ + c)
= a’b + ab’ + ac
= f3

How to obtain f4 ?
f4(a,b,c) = a’b + ab’ +bc 25
 Example:

f(A,B,C,D) = AB + AC + ABC
DeMorgan
= (AB) (AC ) + ABC

= (A + B) (A + C)+ ABC
= A A + AC + AB + B C +
ABC
= A + AC + AB +
BC
= A + AB +
BC
= A+ B
C 26
 Example:
f (A, B, C, D) = AB + BC + CD +BD
= AB + CD + B(C +D)
= AB + CD + BCD

= AB + (CD + B)(CD + CD)

= AB + CD + B
= B(A +1) + CD
= B + CD
27
 A very useful rule for simplifying
Boolean function

Basic: a + ab = (a + a)(a + b) = a +
b
We can have the following general form:

a + a[…] = a + [ …]

Examples: x + x(w + yz) = x + (w + yz)

a + a(bd + bcd + cd ) = a + bd +
bcd + cd
28
1.6 Karnaugh Map

• In
1953, Maurice Karnaugh introduced a map
method known as Karnaugh map (K-map)
> A straightforward procedure for minimizing Boolean
functions in a table form
> Graphical representation of a truth table
>Minterm is used in the cell of the K-map
> It isn-variable function (defined by 2 n ):
>Two-variable K-map has 4 cells
> Three-variable K-map has 8 cells
>Four-variable K-map has 16 cells

29
 Two-variable K-map

Variables are This column

labeled on the represents a = 1
upper left corner
of the map
This cell means
(a = 1) AND (b =
0)
This row This cell means
represents b = 1 (a = 1) AND (b = 1)

a 0 1 a 0 1
b b
0 a'b ’ ab’ 0 m0 m2
1 a'b ab 1 m1 m3

Minterm representations 30
 Plotting functions in K-map

f(a,b) = Σm(0,3) Canonical form (contain Minterm)

a 0 1 a 0 1 Put a 0 or leave blank for

b b those minterms not included
0 0 1 in the function
or
1 1 1
Put a 1 in the corresponding
cells

f(a,b) = a’b + ab’ Function must be formed by

Minterm
a 0 1 a 0 1 Functions represented
b b
0 1 1 1 1 graphically with corresponding
or 0
minterm cells labeled to value 1
1 0 0 1
31
 Three-variable K-map

Note: the columns are not in

numerical order, but Gray code
order (why)?

This cell means:

(a = 0) AND (b = 1) AND (c =
0)

32
Minterm representations

33
Simplification of Production Terms
Example: Simplify f(a,b,c) =Σm(6,7) Only one-
variable
difference

Using Boolean Algebra:

f(a,b,c) = abc’ + abc

= ab (adjacency)

This group contains both 0 and 1

for c (i.e. no longer depends on
c, depends on a and b only

Rule: whenever we group two adjacent cells, they

can form a product term with one variable less
34
 Wrap-around Adjacency

Adjacent cells (1-

bit change only)

Form a cylinder!
35
 More examples

f(a,b,c) = abc’ + ab’c’

= ac’ (adjacency)

We can even group adjacent 1’s

across the edges:
Also one-variable difference!

f(a,b,c) = a’b’c’ + ab’c’

= b’c’ (adjacency)

36
 Format of three-variable

Label rows with first variable, Vertical orientation of

Columns with the others three-variable K-map

Although there are different ways

drawing the K-map, we use the same
method to group the adjacent 1’s!

37
 Four-variable K-map

Not: Only 1 bit difference between adjacent cells

38
Wrap-around Adjaceny for 4 Variables

39
 Image the map as 1-bit change only for
every adjacent cells!
….

1-bit change only for

every adjacent cells!

40
Examples of 4-variable K-map

f(a,b,c,d) = a’b’d’ + bc’d f(a,b,c,d) =

f(a,b,c,d) = a’cd + acd = f(a,b,c,d) =

cd cd 41
 Examples of 4-variable K-map

f(a,b,c,d) = a’b’ + ad f(a,b,c,d) =

Across 4 Group of
corners: 8 cells:

f(a,b,c,d) = f(a,b,c,d) = 42
Are They Adjacent Cells?

Diagonal X Magic square

X
43
 Summary for K-map method

Group size is power of 2 (e.g. 2, 4, 8) Other group size is illegal!

Limitations
. The Boolean functions minimized by K-map are always in SOP or
POS form
. Can handle minimization for two-level circuits, but not three or
more levels
44
1.7 Minimization using Karnaugh map

• Group the adjacent cells (the number of cells

must be a power of 2)
• Rules
>(1) To find the fewest group that covers all cells with
marked of 1s
>(2) The groups should be as large as possible

• Goal
>Reduce the number of products (terms) to minimum
>Save the cost
45
Example: Two-variable K-map

Simplify f(a,b) =Σm(0,1,3)

Many ways to group them. Which is best solution?

(i) (ii)
3 groups 2 groups
f = a’b’ + a’b + ab f = a’b’ +
b

(iii) (iv) 2 groups (the groups

2 groups
can be overlapped)
f = a’ +
f = a’ + b
ab
46
Example: Three-variable K-map
Simplify f(a,b,c) =Σm(0,1,2,3,4,5)
Which solution is better?

(i) 2 groups
f(a,b,c) = a’ + ab’

(ii) 2 groups
f(a,b,c) = a’ + b’

47
Example: Four-variable K-map

Select the least number of groups to cover all minterms:

f(a, b, c, d)’ = a’d + bd’

48
 Two Solutions

f (a,b,c,d) = a’b’c’d’ + abc’ + or f (a,b,c,d) = a’b’c’d’ + abc’ +

ab’c + bc’d + ab’c + bc’d +
abd acd

49
 Logic function in POS with K-map

• Previous examples only show the simplified

Boolean functions in SOP form
• How to obtain functions in POS form
>Step 1:- Group the 0s to obtain f’ in SOP form
>Step2:- Apply DeMorgan’s Theorem to find f
in POS form
or
>Group the 0s and express them directly in POS with
Maxterms (require to complement the variables with +)

50
Example: Find POS
Simplify f(a,b,c,d) =Σm(0,1,2,5,8,9,10) in
POS form

Group the 0s using the same

Fill the 1s and 0s into the procedure as grouping the 1s
map
f’(a,b,c,d) = ab + cd + bd ’
f(a,b,c,d) = (a’+b’)(c’+d’)
(b’+d) 51
 1.8 Logic functions with Don’t’-care conditions

The output of Boolean functions are incompletely

specified functions,

• For some input conditions, the outputs are

unspecified
• Input condition has no effects to the function
i.e., the output for those input are of no concern
• Output values are defined as don’t-care
• Don’t-care term can be minterm / maxterms
• Don’t-care term indicates by an 根 , d, φ or Q

52
Truth Table with Don’t Care

a b f What the table says is:

0 0 0 f is 0 if (a = 0 AND b = 0)
f is 1 if (a = 0 AND b = 1), or
0 1 1 (a = 1 AND b = 0)
1 0 1
fcan be 0 or 1 if (a = 1 AND b = 1)
1 1 X

a b f1 f2 f(a, b) = Σm(1,2) + Σd(3)

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 Both f1 or f2 of the table on
the left are acceptable
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
53
K-map with Don’t-care

Which solution is better?

f 1 implementation
2 groups
f = a’b + ab’

f 2 implementation
2 groups
f=a +b
54
Procedure for K-map in don’t-care cases

Simplify f(a,b,c,d) =Σm(1,3,7,11,15) + Σd(0,2,5)

f(a,b,c,d) = a’b’d +
cd
Is it a good solution? 55
Other solutions

f(a,b,c,d) = a’b’ + f(a,b,c,d) = a’d +

cd cd

Choose to include those Xs that eliminates more literals

56