Memory Unit

Main Memory
internal Memory Technology
Outline
• Semiconductor Main Memory Overview
• Organization
• Types of Semiconductor Memories
• RAM
• DRAM
• SRAM
• Types of ROM
• Error Correction
 Semiconductor Main Memory Overview…
• Organization
• the use of semiconductor chips for main memory is almost universal
• Basic element of a semiconductor memory
• is a memory cell
• Although a variety of electronic technologies are used
• All memory cells are share certain properties: they
• Exhibit two stable states --- used to represent binary 1/0
• Capable of being written into --- set the state
• Capable of being read from --- sense the state
Semiconductor Main Memory Overview…

• Organization …
• Operation of a memory cell
• The cell has three functional terminals
• Select terminal
• Selects a memory cell for a read or write operation
• Control terminal
• Indicates read or write operation
 Semiconductor Main Memory Overview…

• Operation of a memory cell…

• For writing
• the third terminal provides an electrical signal that sets the state
of the cell to 1 or 0
• For reading
• The third terminal is used to output the cell’s state
 Semiconductor Memory Types

• Table above lists different types of semiconductor memories

• The most common memory is referred to as RAM
 Semiconductor Memory
• RAM
• Semiconductor memory is random access
• Possible to Read/Write : Both the reading and writing are accomplished
through the use of electrical signals.
• Volatile: must be provided with a constant power supply
• If the power is interrupted, then the data are lost.
• Can be used only as a temporary storage
• Two types of technologies can be used to built RAM:
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Semiconductor Memory...
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• Bits stored as charge in capacitors
• is made with cells that store data(Bits ) as charge on capacitors.
• The presence or absence of charge in a capacitor is interpreted as a
binary 1 or 0
• Because capacitors have a natural tendency to discharge,
• Dynamic RAMs require periodic charge refreshing to maintain data
storage.
• The term dynamic refers to this tendency of the stored charge to leak or
lose away
• Simpler construction and Smaller per bit (dense)
• Less expensive
• Slower
• Used for main memory
Semiconductor Memory...
• Dynamic RAM Structure
 Semiconductor Memory
• DRAM Operation
• Figure is a typical DRAM structure for an individual cell that stores 1 bit.
• The address line is activated when the bit value from this cell is to be
read or written.
• The transistor acts as a switch that is closed (allowing current to flow) if
a voltage is applied to the address line and
• open (no current flows) if no voltage is present on the address line.
 DRAM Operation

For the write operation, a voltage signal is applied to the bit line; a high
voltage represents 1, and a low voltage represents 0.
A signal is then applied to the address line, allowing a charge to be
transferred to the capacitor.
For the read operation, when the address line is selected, the transistor
turns on and the charge stored on the capacitor is fed out onto a bit line
and to a sense amplifier.
The sense amplifier compares the capacitor voltage to a reference value
and determines if the cell contains a logic 1 or a logic 0.
The readout from the cell discharges the capacitor, which must be restored
to complete the operation.
Although the DRAM cell is used to store a single bit (0 or 1), it is essentially
an analog device.
 Semiconductor Memory...
• Static RAM
• static RAM (SRAM) is a digital device that uses the same logic elements
used in the processor.
• In a SRAM, binary values are stored using traditional flip-flop logic-gate
configurations .
• A static RAM will hold its data as long as power is supplied to it.
• Bits stored using flip flops, on/off switches
• No refreshing needed when powered
• More complex construction
• Larger per bit
• More expensive
• Faster
• Used for cache memory
 Semiconductor Memory...
• Static RAM Structure
• Four transistors
• (T 1 ,T 2 ,T 3 ,T 4 ) are cross connected in an arrangement that
produces a stable logic state.
 Semiconductor Memory...
• Static RAM Operation
• Transistor arrangement gives stable logic state
• State 1
• C1 high, C2 low
• T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
• State 0
• C2 high, C1 low
• T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on

• Address line control transistors T5 & T6 is switch

• Write – apply value to B & compliment to B
• Read – value is on line B
• Both states are stable as long as the direct current (dc) voltage is
applied. Unlike the DRAM, no refresh is needed to retain data.
Static RAM Operation
 As in the DRAM, the SRAM address line is used to open or close a
switch.
 The address line controls two transistors (T 5 and T 6 ).When a signal is
applied to this line, the two transistors are switched on, allowing a read or
write operation.
 For a write operation, the desired bit value is applied to line B, while its
complement is applied to line B ‘s complement .This forces the four
transistors (T 1 ,T 2 ,T 3 ,T 4 ) into the proper state.
 For a read operation, the bit value is read from line B .
Read Operation:
• For Read operation both bit lines (BL,BL bar) must be pre-charged to
VDD and access transistors must be turn on (T5=T6=1).
• Based data value store any one of bit line is discharge and the voltage
difference between two bit lines is sensed by sense amplifier and we are
able to detect what is present in memory.
Write Operation:
• The data which we want to write in the memory is given to bit line and
access transistors are turn on(T5=T6=1) and we are able to write the data.
 Semiconductor Memory...
• SRAM v DRAM
• Both are volatile; that is, power must be continuously supplied to the
memory to preserve the bit or data values.
• A dynamic memory cell is simpler and smaller than a static memory cell.
• DRAM is less expensive than a corresponding SRAM.
• That SRAMs are generally somewhat faster than DRAMs. Because of
these relative characteristics,
• SRAM is used for cache memory (both on and off chip),and DRAM is
used for main memory.
• Dynamic cell
• Simpler to build, smaller
• Less expensive
• Needs refresh
• Static
• Faster
• Cache
 ROM
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
• contains a permanent pattern of data that cannot be changed
• Non-volatile: no power source is required to maintain the bit values in
memory
• Read but cannot write
• Used for
• Microprogramming ,
• Library subroutines – for frequently used functions, system programs (BIOS),
• allows you to access and set up your computer system at the most basic level.
• function tables
• Written during fabrication
• the advantage of ROM is that the data or program is permanently in
main memory and need never be loaded from a secondary storage
device.
 Types of ROM…
• Programmable ROM (PROM)
• Programmed only once
• the PROM is nonvolatile
• It less expensive
• the writing process is performed electrically
• Special equipment is required for writing or “programming” process
• Read “mostly” memory : in which read operations are far more frequent than write
operations
• Erasable Programmable (EPROM)
• is read and written electrically, as with PROM.
• However, before a write or programming operation, all the storage cells
must be erased to the same initial state by exposure of the packaged chip to
ultraviolet radiation
• This erasure process can be performed repeatedly;
• EPROM is more expensive than PROM, but it has the advantage of the
multiple update capability or can be altered multiple times.
Types of ROM…
• Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)
• is a read-mostly memory that can be written into at any time without
erasing prior contents; only the byte or bytes addressed are updated.
• Cells don’t need to be erased before programming
• write operation takes considerably longer than the read operation,
• EEPROM is more expensive than EPROM & supporting fewer bits per chip.
• Cells programmed in place without special equipment
• Flash memory
• Flash memory gets its name because section of memory cells are erased in
a single action or “flash.
• Erase whole memory electrically
• uses an electrical erasing technology.
• Can erase selected block rather than the entire memory
• However, flash memory does not provide byte-level erasure.
 Error Correction
• Errors in semiconductor memory categorized as :
• Hard Failure
• Permanent physical defect
• caused by :
• harsh environmental abuse,
• manufacturing defects, and
• wear:
• Soft Error
• Random, non-destructive event
• alters the contents of one or more memory cells without damaging the
memory.
• No permanent damage to memory
• Caused by power supply problems
• Detected using Hamming error correcting code
 External Memory
Magnetic Disk
A disk is a circular platter constructed of nonmagnetic material,
called the substrate, coated with a magnetizable material
To be more precise, and HDD is made up of one or more rigid
magnetic disks called platters, plus a read/write head and of course
the mechanical bits that make it all work.
Magnetic Read and Write Mechanisms
Data are recorded on and later retrieved from the disk via a
conducting coil named the head; in many system there are two a
read and a write head.
During a read or write operation, the head is stationary (not
movable) while the platter rotates beneath /under it.
The write mechanism electricity flowing through a coil produces a
magnetic field.
Electric pulses are sent to the write head, and the resulting
magnetic patterns are recorded on the surface below.
The write head itself is made of easily magnetizable material
 Magnetic Disk
 read mechanism that a magnetic field moving relative to a coil produces an
electrical current in the coil.
 When the surface of the disk passes under the head, it generates a current of
the same polarity as the one already recorded.
 Structure of the head for reading in this case essentially the same as for
writing.
 Such single heads are used in floppy disk systems and in older rigid disk
systems.
Data Organization and Formatting
• The head is a relatively small device capable of reading from or
writing to a portion of the platter rotating beneath it.
• This gives rise to the organization of data on the platter in a
concentric set of rings, called tracks.
• Each track is the same width as the head.
• There are thousands of tracks per surface.
• Adjacent tracks are separated by gaps
This gaps prevents, or minimizes, errors due to misalignment of the
head or simply interference of magnetic fields.
• Data are transferred to and from the disk in sectors
• There are typically hundreds of sectors per track, and these may be
of either fixed or variable length.
• fixed-length sectors are used, with 512 bytes
• adjacent sectors are separated by intratrack (inter sector) gaps.
 Physical Characteristics
 First, the head may either be fixed or movable with respect to the
radial direction of the platter.
 In a fixed-head disk, there is one read-write head per track
• All heads are mounted on a rigid arm that extends across all tracks;
In a movable-head disk, there is only one read-write head.
• Again, the head is mounted on an arm. Because the head must be
able to be positioned above any track, the arm can be extended or
retracted for this purpose.
 The disk itself is mounted in a disk drive, which consists of the arm,
a spindle that rotates the disk, and the electronics needed for input
and output of binary data.
• A non-removable disk is permanently mounted in the disk drive; the
hard disk in a personal computer is a non-removable disk
• A removable disk can be removed and replaced with another disk.
 Physical Characteristics !….
• For most disks, the magnetizable coating is applied to both sides of
the platter, which is then referred to as double sided.
• Some less expensive disk systems use single-sided disks.
• Some disk drives accommodate multiple platters stacked vertically a
fraction of an inch apart
• Multiple arms are provided
• Multiple–platter disks employ a movable head, with one read-write
head per platter surface
• All of the heads are mechanically fixed so that all are at the same
distance from the center of the disk and move together
• The set of all the tracks in the same relative position on the platter is
referred to as a cylinder…
 Disk Performance Parameters
The actual details of disk I/O operation depend on
•the computer system,
•the operating system, and
•the nature of the I/O channel and disk controller hardware.
 When the disk drive is operating, the disk is rotating at constant
speed.
 To read or write, the head must be positioned at the desired track
and at the beginning of the desired sector on that track
 Track selection involves moving the head in a movable head
system or electronically selecting one head on a fixed-head
system.
Disk Performance Parameters…
On a movable-head system, the time it takes to position the head at
the track is known as seek time
once the track is selected, the disk controller waits until the
appropriate sector rotates to line up with the head.
 The time it takes for the beginning of the sector to reach the
head is known as rotational delay, or rotational latency.
 The sum of the seek time, if any, and the rotational delay equals
the access time, which is the time it takes to get into position to
read or write
 Once the head is in position, the read or write operation is then
performed as the sector moves under the head;
 this is the data transfer portion of the operation; the time
required for the transfer is the transfer time.
Disk Performance Parameters…
SEEK TIME
 Seek time is the time required to move the disk arm to the required track.
 The seek time consists of two key components: the initial startup time, and
the time taken to traverse the tracks that have to be crossed once the
access arm is up to speed.
ROTATIONAL DELAY
Is the delay waiting for the rotation of the disk to bring the
required disk sector under the read-write head.
It depends on the rotational speed of a disk (or spindle motor)
 measured in revolutions per minute(RPM) . In other words, it is a time
measurement, in MS (milliseconds), of how long before a rotating drive can
transfer data.
Disk Performance Parameters…
TRANSFER TIME
The transfer time to or from the disk depends on the rotation
speed of the disk in the following fashion:
T = b/rN
where
T = transfer time
b= number of bytes to be transferred
N =number of bytes on a track
r= rotation speed, in revolutions per second
Thus the total average access time can be expressed as
T a = T s +1/2r+b/rN
where T s is the average seek time
 OPTICAL MEMORY
Optical storage is any storage type in which data is written and read with
a laser.
A laser is a coherent and focused beam of photons; coherent, in this context,
means that it is all one wavelength
CD
• Compact Disk. A non erasable disk that stores digitized audio
information. The standard system uses 12-cm disks and can record more
than 60 minutes of uninterrupted playing time.
• The data cannot be altered (non-volatile),
• CD-ROMs are random-access devices.
DVD
• Digital Versatile Disk. A technology for compressed representation of
video information, as well as large volumes of other digital data. Both 8
and 12 cm diameters are used,.
 OPTICAL MEMORY!
CD-R and DVD-R
• CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can have
data burnt onto them, but not erased.
• can keep adding data until the disc is full, but you cannot remove any
data or re-use a full disc.
CD-RW and DVD-RW
• CD-Re-Writable (CD-RW) and DVD-Re-Writable (DVD-RW) discs,
unlike CD-Rs and DVD-Rs, can have data burnt onto them and
• also erased so that the discs can be re-used.
 OPTICAL MEMORY
Compact Disk:
CD-ROM: Both the audio CD and the CD-ROM share a similar
technology. The main difference is that CD-ROM players have error
correction devices to ensure that data are properly transferred from
disk to computer.
Both types of disk are made the same way
Information is retrieved from a CD or CD-ROM by a low-powered
laser housed in an optical-disk player, or drive unit.
Recall that, on a magnetic disk, information is recorded in
concentric tracks. With the simplest constant angular velocity (CAV)
system, the number of bits per track is constant.
To achieve greater capacity, CDs and CD-ROMs do not organize
information on concentric tracks. Instead, the disk contains a single
spiral track, beginning near the center and spiraling out to the outer
edge of the disk
 Compact Disk…..
Sectors near the outside of the disk are the same length as those near
the inside.
The disk rotates more slowly for accesses near the outer edge than for
those near the center.
Data on the CD-ROM are organized as a sequence of blocks. A typical
block format consists of the following fields:
 Sync: The sync field identifies the beginning of a block. It consists of
a byte of all 0s,10 bytes of all 1s,and a byte of all 0s.
 Header: The header contains the block address and the mode byte.
 Mode 0 specifies a blank data field;
 mode 1 specifies the use of an error-correcting code and 2048
bytes of data;
 mode 2 specifies 2336 bytes of user data with no error-
correcting code.
 Data: User data.
 Auxiliary: Additional user data in mode 2. In mode 1, this is a 288-
byte error- correcting code.
 Compact Disk:
CD RECORDABLE:
The write-once read-many CD, known as the CD recordable (CD-R)
with a somewhat more expensive disk controller than for CD-ROM,
the customer can write once as well as read the disk.
CD REWRITABLE
The CD-RW optical disk can be repeatedly written and overwritten,
as with a magnetic disk
The CD-RW has the obvious advantage over CD-ROM and CD-R that
 it can be rewritten and thus used as a true secondary
storage. As such, it competes with magnetic disk.
A key advantage of the optical disk are much less severe
than for high-capacity magnetic disks. Thus, they exhibit higher
reliability and longer life.
 Compact Disk…..
Digital Versatile Disk
 The DVD takes video into the digital age.
 It delivers movies with impressive picture quality, and it can be
randomly accessed like audio CDs,
 which DVD ,machines can also play.
High-Definition Optical Disks
are designed to store high-definition[HD] videos and to provide
significantly greater storage capacity compared to DVDs.
 MAGNETIC TAPE
 Tape systems use the same reading and recording techniques as disk
systems.
 Data on the tape are structured as a number of parallel tracks
running lengthwise
 The recording of data in this form is referred to as parallel recording.
 Most modern systems instead use serial recording, in which data are
laid out as a sequence of bits along each track, as is done with
magnetic disks.
 As with the disk, data are read and written in contiguous blocks,
called physical records, on a tape.
 Blocks on the tape are separated by gaps referred to as inter-record
gaps
 The typical recording technique used in serial tapes is referred to as
serpentine recording
 MAGNETIC TAPE….
A tape drive is a sequential-access device. If the tape head is
positioned at record 1,then to read record N, it is necessary to read
physical records 1 through N 1, one at a time
It is still widely used as the lowest-cost, slowest-speed member of
the memory hierarchy.
by
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