Understanding Computers

Today and Tomorrow 12th Edition

Chapter 2

The System Unit:

Processing and Memory
 Learning Objectives
• Understand how data and programs are represented
to a computer and be able to identify a few of the
coding systems used to accomplish this.
• Explain the functions of the hardware components
commonly found inside the system unit, such as the
CPU, memory, buses, and expansion cards.
• Describe how new peripheral devices or other
hardware can be added to a PC.
• Understand how the computer system’s CPU and
memory components process program instructions
and data.
• Name and evaluate several strategies that can be
used today for speeding up the operations of a
computer.
• List some technologies that may be used in the future
PCs.
Chapter 2 Understanding Computers, 12th Edition 2
 Overview
• This chapter covers:
– How computers represent data and programs
– How the CPU, memory, and other components
located inside the system unit are arranged and
their purposes
– How the CPU works
– Strategies to speed up a computer today and to
create faster computers in the future

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 Data and Program Representation
• In order to be understood by a computer, data and
programs need to be represented appropriately
• Coding systems: Used to represent numeric, text-
based, and multimedia data, as well as to represent
programs
• Digital computers: Can only understand two states, off
and on (0 and 1)
• Digital data representation: The process of
representing data in digital form so it can be used by a
computer

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 Digital Data Representation
• Bit: The smallest unit of data
that a binary computer can
recognize (a single 1 or 0)
• Byte = 8 bits
• Byte terminology used to
express the size of
documents and other files,
programs, etc.
• Prefixes are often used to
express larger quantities of
bytes: kilobyte (KB),
megabyte (MB), gigabyte
(GB), etc.

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 The Binary Numbering System
• Numbering system: A way of representing numbers
• Decimal numbering system
– Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
• Binary numbering system
– Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all
possible numbers
• In both systems, the position of the digits determines
the power to which the base number (such as 10 or 2)
is raised

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 The Binary Numbering System

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 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data
• ASCII and EBCDIC
– ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange): coding system traditionally used with
PCs
– EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal
Interchange Code): developed by IBM, primarily for
mainframe use
• Unicode: newer code (32 bits per character is
common); universal coding standard designed to
represent text-based data written in any language

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 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

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 Coding Systems for Other
Types of Data
• Graphics (still images
such as photos or
drawings)

• Bitmapped images: A
variety of bit depths
are possible (4, 8, 24
bits)

• Vector-based images:
Use mathematical
formulas to represent
images rather than a
map of pixels

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 Coding Systems for Other
Types of Data
• Audio data: Must be in digital form in order to be
stored on or processed by a PC
– Often compressed when sent over the Internet
• MP3 files
• Video data: Displayed using a collection of frames,
each frame containing a single graphical image
– Amount of data can be substantial, but can be
compressed
• MPEG-2 files

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 Representing Programs: Machine
Language
• Machine language: Binary-based language for
representing computer programs the computer can
execute directly
– Early programs were written in machine language.
– Today’s programs still need to be translated into
machine language in order to be understood by the
computer
• Most program are written in other programming
languages
– Language translators are used to translate the
programs into machine language

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 Inside the System Unit
• System unit: The main case of a computer
– Houses the processing hardware for a computer
– Also contains memory, the power supply, cooling
fans, and interfaces to connect peripheral devices
– Houses the drive bays in which storage devices
(hard drives, DVD drives, etc.) are located
– With a desktop PC, usually looks like a rectangular
box

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 Inside the System Unit

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 The Motherboard
• Computer chip: A very small pieces of silicon or other
semi-conducting material onto which integrated
circuits are embedded
• Circuit board: A thin board containing computer chips
and other electronic components
• Motherboard or system board: The main circuit board
inside the system unit
– All computer components must connect to the
motherboard
– External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice,
printers) typically connect by plugging into a port
exposed through the exterior of the system unit

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 The CPU
• Central processing unit (CPU): circuitry and
components packaged together and attached to the
motherboard
– Does the vast majority of processing for a
computer
– Also called a processor; called a microprocessor
when talking about PCs
• Dual-core CPU: Contain the processing components
(cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU
• Quad-core CPU: Contains 4 cores
• Typically designed for desktop PCs, portable PCs, or
servers
• Often made by Intel or AMD

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 The CPU

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 The CPU

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 Processing Speed
• CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing
speed
– Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
– Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions
processed per second
• Alternate measure of processing speed is the number
of instructions a CPU can process per second
– Megaflops, gigaflops, teraflops
• Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed,
etc.) also affect the overall processing speed of a
computer
• Benchmark tests: Can be used to evaluate overall
processing speed

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 Word Size and Cache Memory
• Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can
manipulate at one time
– Typically 32 or 64-bit
• Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory
chips located on or close to the CPU
– Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
– More cache memory typically means faster
processing
– Usually internal cache today

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 Bus Width, Bus Speed, and
Bandwidth
• Bus: An electronic path over
which data can travel
• Bus width: The number of
wires in the bus over which
data can travel
• Bus width and speed
determine the throughput (or
bandwidth) of the bus

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 Memory
• RAM (random access memory): Temporary memory
that the computer uses
– Consists of chips connected to a memory module
which is connected to the motherboard
– SIMM, DIMM, RIMM
– Holds data and program instructions while they are
needed.
– Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
– Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the
computer is shut off
– Some forms of nonvolatile RAM are under
development

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 Memory

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 Memory
• Registers: High-speed memory built into the CPU;
used by the CPU
• ROM (read-only memory): Read-only chips located on
the motherboard into which data or programs have
been permanently stored
– Retrieved by the computer when needed
– Being replaced with flash memory
• Flash memory: Type of nonvolatile memory that can
be erased and reprogrammed
– Some flash memory chips are used by the PC
– Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory
storage media (sticks, cards, and drives)

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 Fans, Heat Sinks, and
Other Cooling Components
• Heat: A continuing problem for CPU and computer
manufacturers
• Fans: Used on most PCs
• Heat sinks: Small components typically made out of
aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat
• Water cooling systems: Cool the PC with liquid-filed
tubes
• Other cooling methods (such as ion pump cooling
systems) are under development

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 Fans, Heat Sinks, and
Other Cooling Components

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 Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards,
and ExpressCards
• Expansion card: A circuit board used to add additional
functionality or to attach a peripheral device
• Expansion slot: A location on the motherboard into
which expansion cards are inserted
• ExpressCard modules: Designed for
notebook computer expansion

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 Buses
• Bus: An electronic path within a computer over which
data travels
– System bus: Moves data back and forth between
the CPU and memory
– Expansion buses: Connect the CPU to peripheral
(typically input and output) devices
• PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) bus
• AGP bus
• HyperTransport bus
• Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• FireWire/IEEE 1394 bus

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 Buses

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 Ports and Connectors
• Port: A connector on the exterior of a PC’s system unit
to which a device may be attached

– Serial – USB
– Parallel – FireWire
– Network – SCSI
– Keyboard/Mouse – MIDI
– Monitor (VGA, – IrDA
DVI, HDMI) – Game
– Modem/Phone – eSATA

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 Ports and Connectors

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 Ports and Connectors
• Many desktop PCs come
with a variety of ports on
the front of the system
unit for easy access
• A wired or wireless hub
can connect many
devices to a single USB
or FireWire port

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 Ports and Connectors
• Notebook computers
have ports similar to
desktop PCs, but often
not as many
• Handheld computers and
mobile devices typically
have less ports
– An SD slot is
common for both
memory cards
and to connect
peripheral devices

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 How the CPU Works
• CPU: Consists of a variety of circuitry and
components packaged together
– Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
• Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a
switch controlling the flow of electrons inside a
chip
• Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of
transistors; the number doubles about every 18
months (Moore’s Law)

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 Typical CPU Components
• Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): Performs integer
arithmetic and logical operations
• Floating Point Unit (FPU): Performs decimal arithmetic
• Control unit: Coordinates and controls activities
• Prefetch unit: Tries to fetch data and instructions
before they are needed
• Decode unit: Translates instructions so they are
understood by the control unit, ALU, and FPU
• Internal cache and registers: Store data and
instructions needed by the CPU
• Bus interface unit: Where data and instructions flow in
and out of the CPU

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 Typical CPU Components

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 The System Clock and the Machine
Cycle
• System clock: Timing mechanism within the computer
system that synchronizes the computer’s operations
– Each signal is a cycle
– Number of cycles per second = hertz (Hz)
– Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
– Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the
system clock
• For instance, with a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz,
the CPU clock “ticks” 10 times during each
system clock tick
– During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of
microcode are processed

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 The System Clock and the Machine
Cycle
• Machine cycle: The series of operations involved in
the execution of a single machine level instruction
– Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
– Decode: The instructions are decoded so the
control unit, ALU, and FPU can understand them
– Execute: The instructions are carried out
– Store: The original data or the result from the ALU
or FPU execution is stored either in the CPU’s
registers or in memory, depending on the
instruction

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 The System Clock and the Machine
Cycle

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 The System Clock and the Machine
Cycle

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 Making Computers Faster and Better
Now and in the Future
• Improving performance today
– Add more memory
– Perform system maintenance
• Uninstall programs properly
• Consider placing large files on external storage
devices
• Delete temporary files
• Arrange files efficiently
• Scan for viruses and spyware
• Empty the Recycle Bin
– Buy a larger or second hard drive
– Upgrade your Internet connection
– Upgrade your video graphics card

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 Making Computers Faster and Better
Now and in the Future
• Strategies for faster and better computers
– Improved architecture: Smaller components, faster
bus speeds, multiple CPU cores, etc.
– Improved materials: New backing materials, flexible
circuits, etc.
– Pipelining: Allows multiple
– instructions to be processed
– at one time
– Multiprocessing and parallel
– processing: Use multiple
– processors to speed up processing

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 Pipelining

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 Parallel Processing

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 Future Trends
• Nanotechnology: The science of creating tiny
computers and components less than 100 nanometers
in size
• Carbon nanotubes used in many products today
• Nanoparticles and nanocrystals
• In the future, components may be built by
working at the individual atomic and molecular
levels

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 Future Trends
• Quantum computing: Applies the
principles of quantum physics and
quantum mechanics to computers
– Utilizes atoms or nuclei working
together as quantum bits
(qubits)
– Qubits function simultaneously
as the computer’s processor
and memory and can represent
more than two states
– Expected to be used for
specialized applications, such
as encryption and code
breaking

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 Future Trends
• Optical computer: Uses light, such as from laser
beams or infrared beams, to perform digital
computations
– Opto-electronic computers use both optical and
electronic components
• Silicon photonics: The process of making optical
devices using silicon manufacturing techniques
– Hybrid silicon laser
• Terascale computing: The ability to process one trillion
floating-point operations per second
– Expected to be needed for future applications
• 3D chips: Contain transistors that are layered to cut
down on the surface area required

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 Summary
• Data and Program Representation
• Inside the System Unit
• How the CPU Works
• Making Computers Faster and Better Now and In
the Future

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