ME-101:Basics of Mechanical Engineering

Unit-05
Force and Structure Analysis

Dr. Deepak Sharma

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, H.P., India
Topics to be Covered
• Force and Equilibrium

• Centre of Gravity-simple cases

• Beams

• SFD & BMD of cantilever and simply supported beams

• Trusses-simple cases

References:
1. J. Benjamin, Basic Mechanical Engineering, Pentex Books,9th Edition,2018.
2. R. K. Singal, M. Singal, and R. Singal, Basics of Mechanical Engineering, 2007.
3. G. S. Sawhney, Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering, PHI.
 TABLE OF
CONTENTS

0 Concept of 0 Force
1 force 4 System

0 Characteristics of 0 Force System

2 Force 5 Classification

0 Force
3 Classification
CONCEPT OF
FORCE
• A force may be defined as an agency which
changes or tends to change the state of rest or
of uniform motion of a body. The force may be
either of the push type or pull type.
• It is a vector quantity (having both magnitude &
direction).
• The unit of force is newton (N).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
FORCE 𝑦
(+)

Line of
action
Directi

θ
on
𝑥 𝑥
(−) (+)

Point of
application

𝑦
(−)
 FORCE
CLASSIFICATION
FORCE

Contact Force Body Force

It is produced by It is produced when

direct physical an object is located
contact between within a force field.
objects.
• Gravitational
• Applied force force
• Drag force • Electrical force
• Frictional force • Magnetic force
• Normal force
• Spring force
• Tension force
 CONTACT
FORCE
Drag Force
It is a force that is
experienced by an
object when it is
moving through a fluid
Applied Force Frictional Force
It is a force that is It is a force that is
applied to an object resisting the relative
by a person or motion of objects
another object sliding against each
other
 CONTACT
FORCE
Spring Force
It is a force that is
exerted upon an object
by a compressed or
stretched spring
Normal Force Tension Force

It is a force that is It is a force that is

acting perpendicular exerted by a cable,
to the surface of rope, chain or string
object when they are
subjected to pull
 BODY
FORCE
Electrical Force
It is an attractive or
repulsive force between
two charged objects

Gravitational Force Magnetic Force

It is a force that causes It is an attractive or
massive objects to pull repulsive force between
other objects towards two magnetic objects
them
FORCE
SYSTEM
Definition
When number of
forces act
simultaneously on a
body then they are
said to form
a force system
 FORCE SYSTEM
CLASSIFICATION

FORCE
SYSTEM

Coplanar Non-coplanar

Line of action of Line of action of

all the forces lie all the forces
on same plane does not lie on
same plane
 COPLANAR FORCE
SYSTEM

Concurrent Parallel General

A set of point forces is considered A parallel coplanar force system Coplanar force systems have all the
concurrent if all the lines of action consists of two or more forces forces acting in one plane. They may
of those forces all come together whose lines of action are all be concurrent, parallel, non-
 NON-COPLANAR FORCE
SYSTEM

Concurrent Parallel General

The forces, which meet at one point, but It consists of forces that intersect at a The forces, which do not meet at one point
their lines of action do not lie on the point called the concurrence. A parallel and their lines of action do not lie on the
same plane, are known as non-coplanar system consists of forces that intersect at same plane, are called non-coplanar non-
concurrent forces infinity. concurrent forces
 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
B C
Case:1 When Two Forces Act at a Point

This law states that if two coplanar forces acting at a point are
Q R
represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram then the diagonal passing through that point 𝜶
represents the resultant of two forces in magnitude and direction. 𝜽
O P A
Suppose two forces P and Q acting at a point O are represented in B C
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides OA and OB
respectively of a parallelogram, as shown in Fig their resultant R is
Q D
R
represented in magnitude and direction by diagonal OC of the
parallelogram OACB. 𝜶
𝜽
O P A
 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
B C
In the vectorial notation form, the parallelogram law of forces can
be written as:
OA → OB = OC Q D
R
P → Q = R where → stands for vectorial sum
Cor. 1: Let the diagonal AB meet the diagonal OC at point D. Then 𝜶
𝜽
D is the middle point of OC.
O P A
Then R = 2 × OD, as shown in Fig.
B C
Cor. 2: If P = Q, then OA = OB and OD bisects the ∠AOB
Resultant of two forces acting at a point: Let the two forces P and Q
acting at an angle a at a point O of rigid body be represented in
Q R
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides OA and OB of a
parallelogram OACB, as shown in Fig. Then their resultant R is 𝜶
represented by the diagonal OC. To calculate the resultant analytically, 𝜽 𝜶
D

∟
produce OA to D and draw CD perpendicular on OA O P A
 PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
B C
Now

Q R

𝜶
𝜽
O P A
+ B C

If is the angle between R and P, then

Q R

𝜶
𝜽 𝜶

∟
D
O P A
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
B C

Q R

𝜶
𝜽
O P A
B C

Q R

𝜶
𝜽 𝜶

∟
D
O P A
Case: II When More than Two Forces Act at a Point
The resultant of three or more forces acting at a point is found analytically by a method which is known as rectangular
components methods. According to this method all the forces acting at a point are resolved into horizontal and vertical
components and then algebraic summation of horizontal and vertical components is done separately. The summation of
horizontal component is written as ΣH and that of vertical as ΣV. Then resultant R is given by

The angle made by the resultant with the horizontal is given by

Let four forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 act at a point O as shown in Fig
Summation or algebraic sum of horizontal components :

Summation or algebraic sum of vertical components :

𝑹= √ (∑ 𝑯 ) +(∑ 𝑽 )
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽=
∑
∑𝑯
𝑽
 LAMI’S THEOREM
It states that, “If there forces acting at a point
are in equilibrium, each force will be proportional
to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces.”
Suppose the three forces P, Q and R are
acting at a point O and they are in equilibrium as
shown in Fig.

Let α = Angle between force P and Q.

β = Angle between force Q and R.
γ = Angle between force R and P.
Then according to Lami’s theorem, P α sine of angle
between Q and R α sin β
 LAMI’S THEOREM
Proof of Lami’s Theorem:
The three forces acting on a point, are in equilibrium and hence
they can be represented by the three sides of the triangle taken
in the same order. Now draw the force triangle as shown in Fig.
Now applying sine rule, we get

This can also be written as

Note. All the three forces should be acting either towards the
point or away from the point.
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
• When some external forces (which may be concurrent or parallel) are acting on a stationary body, the body may start
moving or may start rotating about any point.
• But if the body does not start moving and also does not start rotating about any point, then the body is said to be in
equilibrium.

Principle of Equilibrium:
The principle of equilibrium states that, a stationary body which is subjected to coplanar forces (concurrent or parallel) will
be in equilibrium if the algebraic sum of all the external forces is zero and also the algebraic sum of moments of all the
external forces about any point in their plane is zero. Mathematically, it is expressed by the equations :
ΣF = 0 ……………………….(1)
ΣM = 0……………………….(2)
The sign Σ is known as sigma which is a Greek letter. This sign represents the algebraic sum of forces or moments.
The equation (1) is also known as force law of equilibrium whereas the equation (2) is known as moment law of equilibrium.
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
The forces are generally resolved into horizontal and vertical components. Hence equation (1) is written as:
ΣFx = 0

ΣFy = 0

Where Fx = Algebraic sum of all horizontal components

Fy =Algebraic sum of all vertical components

1. Equations of Equilibrium for Coplanar Non-concurrent Force Systems:
A non-concurrent force systems will be in equilibrium if the resultant of all forces and moment is zero. Hence the equations
of equilibrium are ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0.
Note: *A body will be in equilibrium if both the resultant of the forces and resultant moment are zero, whereas a particle will
be in equilibrium if the resultant force acting on it is zero.
2. Equations of Equilibrium for Coplanar Concurrent Force System:
For the concurrent forces, the lines of action of all forces meet at a point, and hence the moment of those force about that
point will be zero or ΣM = 0 automatically. Thus for concurrent force system, the condition ΣM = 0 becomes redundant and
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
Force Law of Equilibrium:
Force law of equilibrium is given by above equations. Let us apply this law to
the following important force system :
(i) Two force system
(ii) Three force system
(iii) Four force system.
1. Two Force System.
When a body is subjected to two forces, then the body will be in equilibrium if
the two forces are collinear, equal and opposite as shown in Fig.
If the two forces acting on a body are equal and opposite but are parallel, as
shown in Fig. then the body will not be in equilibrium. This is due to the fact
that the three conditions of equilibrium will not be satisfied. This is proved as
given below :
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

(i) Here ΣFx = 0 as there is no horizontal force acting on the body. Hence 1st
condition of equilibrium is satisfied.
(ii) Also here ΣFy= 0 as F1 = F2. Hence second condition of equilibrium is also
satisfied.
(iii) ΣM about any point should be zero. The resultant moment about point
A is given by MA= – F2 × AB
(–ve sign is due to clockwise moment)
But MA is not equal to zero. Hence the third condition is not satisfied.
Hence a body will not be in equilibrium under the action of two equal and
opposite parallel forces.
Two equal and opposite parallel forces produce a couple and moment of
the couple is – F1 × AB
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

2. Three Force System:

The three forces acting on a body which is in equilibrium may be either
concurrent or parallel. Let us first consider that the body is in equilibrium
when three forces, acting on the body, are concurrent. This is shown in Fig.
(a) When three forces are concurrent. The three concurrent forces F 1, F2 and

F3 are acting on a body at point O and the body is in equilibrium. The

resultant of F1 and F2 is given by R. If the force F3 is collinear, equal and

opposite to the resultant R, then the body will be in equilibrium. The force
F3 which is equal and opposite to the resultant R is known as equilibrant.
Hence for three concurrent forces acting on a body when the body is in
equilibrium, the resultant of the two forces should be equal and opposite to
the third force.
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
(b) When three forces are parallel. Fig. shows a body on which three parallel
forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting and the body is in equilibrium. If three forces F1,

F2 and F3 are acting in the same direction, then there will be a resultant R = F1

+ F2 + F3 and body will not be in equilibrium. The three forces are acting in
opposite direction and their magnitude is so adjusted that there is no
resultant force and body is in equilibrium. Let us suppose that F2 is acting in
opposite direction as shown in Fig.
Now let us apply the three conditions of equilibrium :
(i) ΣFx = 0 as there is no horizontal force acting on the body

(ii) ΣFy= 0 i.e., F1 + F3 = F2

(iii) ΣM = 0 about any point.
Taking the moments of F1, F2 and F3 about point A, ΣMA = – F2 × AB + F3 × AC
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
(Moment of F3 is anti-clockwise whereas moment of F2 is clockwise)

For equilibrium, ΣMA should be zero

i.e., – F2 × AB + F3 × AC = 0

If the distances AB and AC are such that the above equation is satisfied, then the

body will be in equilibrium under the action of three parallel forces.

3. Four Force System:

The body will be in equilibrium if the resultant force in horizontal direction is zero

(i.e., ΣFx = 0), resultant force in vertical direction is zero (i.e., ΣFy = 0) and moment of

all forces about any point in the plane of forces is zero (i.e., ΣM = 0).
 FREE BODY DIAGRAM
In order to solve a problem, it is essential to isolate the body under consideration from the other bodies in contact and draw
all the external (or applied) and internal (or reactive and self weight) forces acting on the body. Such a diagram of the body
in which the body under consideration is freed from all the contact surfaces and all the forces acting on it (both applied and
non-applied) are drawn, is called a free body diagram. In such a diagram, all the supports like walls, floors, hinges, etc. are
removed and replaced by the reactions which these supports exert on the body. The free body diagrams for some of the
cases are
Problem 1. A string ABCDE whose and A is fixed has weights W 1 and W2 attached to it at B and C, and passes over a smooth peg at D carrying
a weight of 1000 N at the free end E, as shown in Fig. In the equilibrium position BC makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal and AB and
CD make angles of 150° and 120° respectively with BC. Determine
(a) The tensions in portion AB, BC, CD and DE.
(b) The values of weights W1 and W2
(c) the pressure on the peg D.
Solution: Let T1, T2, T3 and T4 be the tensions in AB, BC, CD, and DE respectively. For the equilibrium of peg, T 3 = T4 = 1000 N. Applying Lami’s
theorem at point C, we have
Problem 2. A heavy spherical ball of weight 150 N rests in a V-shaped block whose sides are inclined at 30° and 45° to the
horizontal. Find the pressure exerted on each side of the block.
Solution: The sphere resting in the V-block is shown in Fig. (a). The reactions at A and B are perpendicular to the sides of the
block and pass through the centre of sphere O. The free body diagram is shown in Fig. (b). Applying Lami’s Theorem, we
have

𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟕𝟓°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟓𝟎°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡( 𝟏𝟑𝟓°)

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟓𝟎 °
𝑹 𝟏=𝟏𝟓𝟎 × =𝟕𝟕 .𝟔𝟒 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕𝟓 °
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟑𝟓 °
𝑹 𝟐=𝟏𝟓𝟎 × =𝟏𝟎𝟗 . 𝟖 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕𝟓 °
Problem 3. Two spherical balls each of weight 200 N rest one above the other in a V-block as shown in Fig. 1.44. Determine
(a) the reactions between the balls and sides of the V-block, and (b) the reaction between the balls
Solution: The reaction at A, B and C are perpendicular to the sides of the V-block. The reaction between the balls at D are
equal and opposite and act along the line of centres of balls passing through O 1 and O2. The free body diagram is shown in

Fig. (b). Applying Lami’s theorem at point O2, we have 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑫

= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟗𝟎°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟑𝟓°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏 𝟑 𝟓°)

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟑𝟓 °
𝑹 𝑪 =𝑹 𝑫 =𝟐𝟎𝟎 × =𝟏𝟒𝟏 .𝟒 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎 °

Now consider equilibrium of forces at O1.

ΣFx = 0 𝑹 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝟎° − 𝑹 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝟓° − 𝑹 𝑫 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝟓°=𝟎

……………………..(1)

ΣFy = 0 𝑹 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝟎° − 𝑹 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟓° − 𝑹 𝑫 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝟓° −𝟐𝟎𝟎=𝟎

…………………………..(2)

𝑹 𝑨=𝟐𝟗𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 𝑵 𝑹 𝑩 =𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟐 𝑵
Problem 4. A system of connected flexible cables is supporting two vertical forces of 300 N and 400 N as shown in Fig.
Calculate the forces in various segments of the cable.
Solution: The free body diagram of the cable system is shown in Fig. (b). Applying Lami’s theorem at point D, we have

𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟎𝟓°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟐𝟎 °) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟑𝟓°)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎 °
𝑻 𝟑=𝟒𝟎𝟎 × =𝟑𝟓𝟖 .𝟔𝟑 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎𝟓 °
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟑𝟓 °
𝑻 𝟒=𝟒𝟎𝟎 × =𝟐𝟗𝟐 .𝟖𝟐 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎𝟓 °

Consider the equilibrium of forces at B.

ΣFx = 0 −𝑻 𝟏 +𝑻 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟔𝟎° +𝑻 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟒𝟓°=𝟎
……………………..(1)

ΣFy = 0 𝑻 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝟎° −𝑻 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟓° −𝟑𝟎𝟎=𝟎

…………………………..(2)

𝑻 𝟏=𝟓𝟕𝟑 .𝟐 𝑵 𝑻 𝟐=𝟔𝟑𝟗 .𝟐𝟓 𝑵

Problem 5. Two identical rollers, each of weight 200 N are supported by an inclined plane and a vertical wall as shown in Fig.
1.49 (a). Assuming smooth surfaces, find the reactions at the points of supports A, B, C and D.
Solution: The free body diagram is shown in Fig. (b). Applying Lami’s theorem at O 2, we have

𝑾 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑫
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟗𝟎°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟐𝟎°) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ⁡(𝟏𝟓𝟎°)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎 °
𝑹 𝑪 =𝟐𝟎𝟎 × =𝟏𝟕𝟑 . 𝟐 𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎 °

𝑹 𝑫 =𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟓 𝟎 ° =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵

Resolving the forces at O1 we have.

ΣFx = 0 𝑹 𝑨 − 𝑹 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟔𝟎° − 𝑹 𝑫 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝟎°=𝟎

86.6……………………………………..(1)

ΣFy = 0 𝑹 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝟎° − 𝑹 𝑫 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟔𝟎° −𝑾 =𝟎

……………..(2)

𝑹 𝑨=𝟐𝟑𝟎. 𝟗𝟒 𝑵 𝑹 𝑩 =𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟖 𝑵
 CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Centroid: The centroid is that point at which whole of the length, area or volume may be assumed to be concentrated. The
central points obtained for volumes, surfaces and line segments are termed as centroids.
Centre of Gravity: Each particle of a body is attracted towards the centre of the earth by a gravitational force. This is called
the weight of the particle. For a body consisting of a number of particles, the gravitational forces acting on particles of a body
form a system of parallel forces passing through each particle. The resultant of all these forces for all positions of the body
passes through a fixed point in the body, which is called the centre of gravity of the body.
Thus, the centre of gravity of a body is a point where the whole weight of the body appears to be concentrated. The term
centre of gravity is used only when the gravitational forces are considered.
Centre of Mass: For those bodies which are outside the field of gravitation of the earth we suppose that an imaginary system
of parallel forces acts on the component particles and that the forces are proportional to the masses of the particles. The
centre of this system of parallel forces is known as the centre of mass.
In simple words, centre of mass may be defined as the point where whole mass of the body may be considered to be
concentrated.
 CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centroid Centre of Gravity

• It is defined as a point about which • It is defined as a point about which

the entire line, area or volume is the entire weight of the body is
assumed to be concentrated. assumed to be concentrated.

• It is related to distribution of • Centre of mass.

length, area or volume.
• It is related to distribution of
mass.
CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY
 CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Rectangular Area Semicircular Area

C C
h
yc yc r
xc xc
b

Triangular Area Quadrant of a Circle

C
C h
yc yc
r
xc xc
b
 CENTROID
Centroid of Plane area
Consider an elementary area dA of plane area A whose coordinates are (x, y) in the
Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in Fig. Then

These equations give the coordinates of centroid of the area

Centroid of a Triangular Lamina

Consider a triangle ABC whose base width is b and height is h. Consider an elementary
strip EFGH of the lamina at a distance y from the base and of height dy as shown in Fig.
CENTROID
 CENTROID
Centroid of Composite area
 CENTROID
Centroid of I Section

20 cm

x1 A1 150 X1 15 Y1 2.5
5 cm 3

A2 75 X2 15 Y2 12.5

x2 A3 100 X3 15 Y3 22.5
15 cm y3
5 cm
2 y2 𝐴1 𝑋 1 + 𝐴2 𝑋 2 + 𝐴3 𝑋 3 𝐴1 𝑌 1 + 𝐴2 𝑌 2 + 𝐴3 𝑌 3
𝑋 𝑐= 𝑌 𝑐=
𝐴 1+ 𝐴2 + 𝐴 3 𝐴1+ 𝐴2+ 𝐴3
x3
5 cm 1
y1
𝑿 𝒄=𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝒀 𝒄=𝟏𝟎.𝟗𝟔 𝒄𝒎
30 cm
 CENTROID
Centroid of Z Section

A1 100 X1 17.5 Y1 2.5

10 cm
x3 = 5 A2 37.5 X2 8.75 Y2 12.5
3 2.5 cm
A3 25 X3 5 Y3 21.25
2.5 cm

X2 = 8.75 15 cm
20 cm Y3 = 21.25
𝐴1 𝑋 1 + 𝐴2 𝑋 2 + 𝐴3 𝑋 3
𝑋 𝑐=
Y2 = 12.5 𝐴 1+ 𝐴2 + 𝐴 3
2
X1 = 17.5 𝐴1 𝑌 1 + 𝐴2 𝑌 2 + 𝐴3 𝑌 3
1 5 cm 𝑌 𝑐=
Y1 = 2.5 𝐴1+ 𝐴2+ 𝐴3

20 cm
𝑿 𝒄=𝟏𝟑 .𝟓𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝒀 𝒄=𝟕 .𝟔𝟗𝒄𝒎
 CENTROID
Centroid of I Section

5 cm

x1
1.5 cm 3 A1 7.5 X1 2.5 Y1 0.75

A2 10.5 X2 0.75 Y2 5
1.5 cm
Y3=9.25 A3 7.5 X3 2.5 Y3 9.25
x2
7 cm

2 Y 2= 5 𝐴1 𝑋 1 + 𝐴2 𝑋 2 + 𝐴3 𝑋 3 𝐴1 𝑌 1 + 𝐴2 𝑌 2 + 𝐴3 𝑌 3
𝑋 𝑐= 𝑌 𝑐=
𝐴 1+ 𝐴2 + 𝐴 3 𝐴1+ 𝐴2+ 𝐴3
x3
1.5 cm 1 Y1=0.75
𝑿 𝒄=𝟏 . 𝟕𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝒀 𝒄=𝟓 𝒄𝒎
5 cm
 𝟒𝒓 𝟒𝟎
CENTROID
𝟐𝟎 −
𝟑𝝅 𝟑

20 cm 20 cm

A1 628.31 X1 60 Y1 20
x2 40 cm
A2 3200 X2 80 Y2 53.33
x3
3
A3 800 X3 11.52 Y3 20
1 x1 y2 40 cm
y3 y1 2
𝐴1 𝑋 1 + 𝐴2 𝑋 2 + 𝐴3 𝑋 3 𝐴1 𝑌 1 + 𝐴2 𝑌 2 + 𝐴3 𝑌 3
20 cm 80 cm 𝑋 𝑐= 𝑌 𝑐=
𝐴 1+ 𝐴2 + 𝐴 3 𝐴1+ 𝐴2+ 𝐴3

𝑿 𝒄=𝟓𝟔 .𝟖𝟕 𝒄𝒎 𝒀 𝒄=𝟐𝟓.𝟕𝟔 𝒄𝒎

 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Consider a body of general shape, shown in Fig. of weight W acting at the centre of
gravity G.
Let Wi be the weight of an element in the given body.

Let xi, yi, zi be the coordinates of the element and that of the centroid G be x y z , , .

Since W is the resultant of Wi forces, therefore

where n = number of elements into which the body can be divided.

Similarly
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
From these equations, we get

These equations give the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the

body of general shape.

 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
If M = mass of the body =

= mass of the ith element

These equations give the coordinates of centre of mass of the body.

 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
If the body is made up of a material of uniform density ρ, then

where Vi = volume of the ith element

V=

These equations give the coordinates of centroid of the volume of the

body.
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Simple Cases
Cylinder Cone Circle Cube Hemisphere

O O R R

R 3R/8
G
G G
G
h/2 G
h/4 b
P a
P
R R R R
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝟐 𝑽= 𝝅 𝑹 𝒉 𝑽= 𝝅𝑹 𝑽 =𝒂 𝑽= 𝝅𝑹
𝑽 =𝝅 𝑹 𝒉 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝒙= 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 =𝒉/𝟐 4 𝒙= 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 =𝑹 𝒙=𝒂/𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 =𝒂 /𝟐 𝒙= 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 =𝟑 𝑹 /𝟖
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Example: Uniform Rod of Length 2l

Consider a uniform rod of length ‘2l’ and mass ‘m’ per

unit length. Let CD = dx be an element of the rod at a

distance x from A (Fig.).

Mass of CD = mdx and its C.G. is at a distance x from A.

If is the distance of C.G. of the rod from A, then,

[ ]
2𝑙 2 2𝑙
𝑥
∫ 𝑥𝑚𝑑𝑥 2 2
0 0 2𝑙
𝑥= 2𝑙
= 2𝑙
= =𝑙
[ 𝑥] 2𝑙
∫ 𝑚𝑑𝑥 0

0
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Problem 1. A right circular cone of base diameter 100 mm and height 200 mm is placed on the hemisphere of the same
diameter. Calculate its centre of gravity.

S.No. Solid Volume, mm3 X, mm Y, mm V.x V.y

200 mm
1. 5.235*105 50 100 26.17*106 52.35*106

G
X=R
2. 2.617*105 50 31.25 13.08*106 81.81*106 h/4
3R/8

50 mm
G
X=R
785398.16 39269908.1 60541108.34

𝑥=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = 39269908.1 =50 𝑦=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑦 𝑖 = 60541108.34 =77.083
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 785398.16 ∑𝑉𝑖 785398.16

Centre of Gravity = (50, 77.083)

 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Problem 2. A solid cone having base diameter 150 mm and height 150 mm is placed on the top of cylinder diameter 150 mm
and height 200 mm, such that axis are co-linear. Locate centre of gravity with respect to bottom.

S.No. Solid Volume, mm3 X, mm Y, mm V.x V.y

1. 3.534*106 75 100 265.05*106 353.4*106

150 mm
X=R
G
h/4
2. 883.57*103 75 237.5 66.267*106 209.847*106

4.417*106 331.31*106 563.24*106

200 mm
X=R G
𝑥=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = 331.31 =75 𝑦=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑦 𝑖 = 563.24 =127.5
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 4.417 ∑ 𝑉 𝑖 4.417 h/2

Centre of Gravity = (75, 127.5)

 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Problem 3. Find the Centre of gravity of composite body shown in figure given below:

5 cm
S.No. Solid Volume, mm 3
X, mm Y, mm V.x V.y

X G
1. 18.85 2.5 3 47.125 56.55 h/2

8 cm
2. 39.27 2.5 7 98.175 274.89

6 cm
X G
58.12 145.3 331.44
h/2

𝑥=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = 145.3 =2.5 𝑦=
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 𝑦 𝑖 = 331.44 =5.702
2 cm
∑ 𝑉 𝑖 58.12 ∑ 𝑉 𝑖 58.12
Centre of Gravity = (2.5, 5.702)
 BEAMS
A Structural member subjected to external forces or couples at right angles to the longitudinal axis is called a
beam.
OR
Beam is structural member which is vertically loaded.
OR
Any member of a machine or structure whose one dimension (length) is very large as compared to the other
two dimensions (width and thickness) and which can carry lateral or tranverse loads in the axial plane is called a
beam.
 A beam may be of rectangular, square, triangular, hexagonal and circular, etc. cross-sections.
 A beam may be made of timber, i.e., timber reinforced with mild steel strips, steel and reinforced concrete.
 The reinforced concrete beams are mostly used in building construction, bridges and flyovers
 BEAMS

Types of Beams:

1. Simply Supported Beam

2. Cantilever Beam

3. Overhanging Beam

4. Fixed Beam

5. Continuous Beam
 BEAMS

1. Simply Supported Beam

A beam which is freely supported on the walls or columns at its both the ends is called as simply supported beam. Typical
practical applications of simply supported beams with point loadings include bridges, beams in buildings, and beds of
machine tools
A B
L

2. Cantilever Beam
A beam fixed at one end and free at the other is called as a cantilever beam.

A B

Wall L
 BEAMS
3. Over Hanging Beam
If the end portion of the beam extends beyond the support, it is called as an overhanging beam. A beam may
be overhanging on one side or on both side as shown in figure.
A B A B A B

Overhanging on Right Side Overhanging on Both Side Overhanging on Left Side

4. Fixed Beam
A beam whose both the ends are rigidly fixed in walls is called a fixed beam or constrained beam.

A B

Wall L Wall
 BEAMS
5. Continuous Beam
A beam which is supported on more than two supports (i.e. at least three supports) is called a continuous
beam. The end supports of a continuous beam may be simply supported or fixed.
A B A B
L1 L2 L1 L2 L3

Two Span Continuous Beam Three Span Continuous Beam

 TYPE OF SUPPORTS

Types of Supports:

1. Simple Support

2. Roller Support

3. Hinged Support

4. Fixed Support
 TYPE OF SUPPORTS

1. Simple Support

If the beam rests simply on a support it is called a simple support. In such case the reaction at the support is at
right angles to the support and the beam is free to move in the direction of its axis and also it is free to rotate
about the support. An example is a plank of wood resting on two concrete blocks.

Simple Support Reaction Force

 TYPE OF SUPPORTS
2. Roller Support
In this case, beam end is supported on rollers. In such cases, reaction is normal to the support since rollers can
be treated as frictionless. [Fig. (a)]. Many mechanical components are having roller supports which roll
between guides. In such cases, reaction will be normal to the guides, in both the direction. At roller support
beam is free to move along the support. It can rotate about the support also. Examples of roller supports
include conveyor belts, sliding doors, and roller coasters.

Reaction Force
 TYPE OF SUPPORTS
3. Hinged Support
At a hinged end, a beam cannot move in any direction. However, it can rotate about the support (Fig.). Hence
the support will not develop any resisting moment, but it can develop reaction in any direction to keep the end
stationary. The reaction R can be split into its horizontal and vertical components for the purpose of analysis.
Examples include doors, gates, bridges, cranes, and machinery.

HA A

R VA

VA = R sin θ HA = R cos θ
 TYPE OF SUPPORTS
4. Fixed Support
At such supports, the beam end is not free to translate or rotate. Translation is prevented by developing support
reaction in any required direction. The easiest example of a fixed support would be a pole or column in
concrete. Referring to Fig. the support reaction R which is at an angle θ to x axis may be represented by H A and

VA, where MA
HA A

𝜽
VA VA = R sin θ HA = R cos θ
R

Rotation is prevented by developing support moment MA as shown in Fig. Thus at fixed support A, there are

three reactions HA, VA and MA.

 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS

Types of loads in Beams:

1. Concentrated Load or Point Load

2. Uniformly Distributed Load (U. D. L)

3. Uniformly Varying Load (U. V. L)

 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS

1. Concentrated Load or Point Load

A load acting at a point on the beam is known as concentrated load. Generally, a load
distributor over small area is taken as concentrated load.

W1 W2 W3
A B
C D E
L
RA RB
 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS

2. Uniformly Distributed Load

A load which is spread up uniformly on the beam i.e. each unit length is loaded on the same extent as shown in
figure is known as a uniformly distributed load or rectangular load. It is written as UDL.
w/unit length
w/unit length
A B B
A
L L
Coil Shape UDL Rectangular Shape UDL
WL
A B
L/2 L/2
 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS
3. Uniformly Varying Load
If the load is spread in non uniform manner i.e. the intensity of load changes continuously but the rate of
change is uniform on each unit length as shown in figure then it is called a uniformly varying load.
engt h gth
w/unit l it le n
u n
w/

B A B
A
L
L
Trapezoidal Shape U.V.L (½)WL Triangular Shape U.V.L
A B
2L/3 L/3
 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS
10 kN 20 kN
A B A B
5 kN 20 kN
4m

A B

4m 4m
A B 6 N/m 20 N/m

3m 6m
A B

3m 6m
8 kN/m
A B

9m
6 kN/m
A B
9m
 TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS
20 kN
A B
2m 2m 5 kN 20 kN
4m

UDL = b h = 4 5 = 20 N A B
= =2m 4m 4m

9 kN 60 kN
A B 6 N/m 20 N/m
1m 2m 4m 2m
3m 6m
A B
UVL = UVL =
= =9N = = 60 N 3m 6m
TYPE OF LOADS IN BEAMS

8 kN/m

6 kN/m
A B
9m

18 kN
27 kN
A B
4.5 m 1.5 m 3m
9m
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT FOR SFD AND BMD
Shear Force
Shear force at any cross section of the beam is the algebraic sum of all vertical forces on the beam acting on the
right or left side of the section.
OR
A shear force is the resultant vertical force acting on the either side of the section of beam.

Sign Convention for Shear Force

An upward force to the X X Downward force to the
L R L R
left of the section and + + - - left of the section and
downward force to the upward force to the right
right of the section is X X of the section is taken as
taken as positive negative
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT FOR SFD AND BMD
Bending Moment
Bending moment at any cross section of the beam is the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting
on the right or left side of the section.

Sign Convention for Bending Moment

X
L R
+ +
Clockwise moment to the X Anticlockwise moment to
X
left section and an the left section and an
L R
anticlockwise moment to - - clockwise moment to the
the right of the section is right of the section is
taken as positive. X taken as positive.
 BEAMS PROBLEMS
Problem 1. A simply supported beam of span 5 m carries two point loads of 5 kN and 7 kN as shown in fig. Draw S.F.D and
B.M.D showing the important values. 5 kN 7 kN

+ + X Y Z
A C D B
+ve shear 1.5 m 2m 1.5 m

– – RA X Y Z RB
𝟓 . 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝟎 . 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
–ve shear

S.F between C and D

= 5.6 – 5 = 0.6 kN
OR 7-6.4 = 0.6 kN
Shear Force Calculations: −𝟔. 𝟒𝒌𝑵
S.F between C and D
S.F between A and C = 5.6 kN = 5.6 – 5 – 7 = - 6.4 kN
OR 5+7-6.4 = 5.6 kN OR = -6.4 kN
 5 kN 7 kN
Bending Moment Calculations: + +
X Y Z
A C D B
(i) BM at Point A = 0
1.5 m 2m 1.5 m

– –
RA X Y Z RB
(ii) BM at Point B = 0 𝟓 . 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝟎 . 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
A −𝟔. 𝟒𝒌𝑵 B
(iii) BM at Point C = 0

OR 𝟗.𝟔𝒌𝑵 − 𝒎
𝟖.𝟒𝒌𝑵 −𝒎
(iv) BM at Point D = 0
A B
OR
 BEAMS PROBLEMS
Problem 2. Draw S.F.D and B.M.D for the beam shown in fig.
3 kN 5 kN
2 kN/m
+ +
A C D B
+ve shear 3m 2m 2m

– – RA RB
6 kN 3 kN 5 kN

–ve shear
A C D B
1.5 m 1.5 m 2m 2m

Shear Force Calculations:

RA RB
S.F at point A = 7.857 kN S.F b/w C & D S.F b/w D & B
= 7.857 – 6 – 3 = - 1.142 kN = 7.857 – 6 – 3 – 5= - 6.143 kN
S.F at point C = 7.857 – 6 = 1.857 kN OR = 5 – 6.142 = -1.142 kN OR = -6.142 kN
 6 kN 3 kN 5 kN

Bending Moment Calculations: + +

A C D B
(i) BM at Point A = 0 1.5 m 1.5 m 2m 2m
– –

RA RB
(ii) BM at Point B = 0
𝟕.𝟖𝟓𝟕𝒌𝑵
1

(iii) BM at Point C = 0
𝟏.𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒌𝑵
OR 𝟏𝟒.𝟓𝟕𝟏𝒌𝑵 −𝒎 𝟔.𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒌𝑵
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟖𝟓𝒌𝑵 −𝒎
(iv) BM at Point D = 0

OR
Problem 3. Draw S.F.D and B.M.D for the cantilever beam shown in fig.
2 kN 1.5 kN

Shear Force Calculations: X Z

A C B
S.F at point A & C = 3.5 kN 0.5 m
1.5 m
S.F between point C & B = 3.5 – 2 = 1.5 kN RA X Z

S.F at point B = 1.5 kN

𝟑 . 𝟓 𝒌𝑵
Bending Moment Calculations: 𝟏 . 𝟓 𝒌𝑵
𝟎 𝒌𝑵A 𝟎 𝒌𝑵
B
(i) BM at Point C = 0

A B
(ii) BM at Point A = 0
−𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒌𝑵 /𝒎
−𝟒 .𝟐𝟓𝒌𝑵 /𝒎
 TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of slender

members joined together at their end points

(Pinned at both ends).

The members commonly used in

construction consist of wooden struts or metal

bars.

In particular, planar trusses lie in a single

 TRUSSES

ANALYSIS OF TRUSS

• To study how to determine the

magnitude and nature of forces in

the members of a truss using different

methods.

• To analyze the forces acting on the

members of frames and machines

 ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
Truss Analysis

External Equilibrium Internal Equilibrium

To find the reaction forces To find the forces in each member

External Equilibrium:
To find the reaction forces, follow the below steps
Methods of Joints Methods of Sections
• Draw the FBD for the entire truss system.
• Determine the reactions, using the equations of
2D which states
 TRUSSES
Assumptions in the Analysis of a Truss

A plane truss is defined as a system of bars, all lying in one plane and
joined together at their ends by pin joints.
 The bars are connected at their ends by frictionless.
 All the bars are lying in one plane.
 The forces acting on the bars are supplied at the hinges only.
 The forces must act on the same plane of the bars.

Because of these assumptions, each truss member will act as a two-force member, and
therefore the force acting at each end of the member will be directed along the axis of the
 STABLE AND DEFICIENT FRAME
𝑰𝒇 𝒏<𝟐 𝒋 −𝟑 → 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆
n is the total number of members in the truss
j is the number of joints in the truss

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆

𝒏=𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒋=𝟕 , →𝟐 ×𝟕 −𝟑=𝟏𝟏 ,

 METHOD OF JOINTS
 In order to analyze or design a truss, it is necessary to determine the force in each of its members.

 This method is based on the fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is

also in equilibrium.

 Therefore, if the free-body diagram of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations can

then be used to obtain the member forces acting on each joint.

 Since the members of a plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each

joint is subjected to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent.

 METHOD OF JOINTS
The following procedure provides a means for analyzing a truss using the method of joints:

 Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at most two unknown forces. (If this joint is at

one of the supports, then it may be necessary first to calculate the external reactions at the support.)

 Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of an unknown force.

 Orient the x and y-axes such that the forces on the free-body diagram can be easily resolved into their x and y components

and then apply the two force equilibrium equations and solve for the two unknown member forces and verify their correct

sense.

 Using the calculated results, continue to analyze each of the other joints. Remember that a member in compression

“pushes” on the joint and a member in tension “pulls” on the joint. Also, be sure to choose a joint having at most two

unknowns and at least one known force.

 METHOD OF JOINTS
Example:

𝑭 𝑩𝑨=𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵

𝑨𝒙 𝑨 𝑭 𝑪𝑨 =𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵
Rav Rcv

𝑨𝒚
 METHOD OF JOINTS
Example:

Joint B. The free body diagram of the joint at B is shown. Applying

the equations of equilibrium, we have

+¿ ∑ 𝑭 𝒙 =𝟎,𝟓𝟎𝟎− 𝑭 𝑩𝑪 sin𝟒𝟓°=𝟎⇒ 𝑭 𝑩𝑪 =𝟕𝟎𝟕.𝟏 𝑵(𝑪)¿

→
Rav Rcv

+↑ ∑ 𝑭 𝒚 =𝟎,𝑭 𝑩𝑪 cos𝟒𝟓°−𝑭 𝑩 𝑨=𝟎⇒𝑭 𝑩𝑨 =𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵(𝑻)+↑

 METHOD OF JOINTS
Example:

Joint C: From the free-body diagram of Joint C

+¿ ∑ 𝑭 𝒙 =𝟎,−𝑭 𝑪 𝑨 +𝟕𝟎𝟕.𝟏cos𝟒𝟓°=𝟎⇒ 𝑭 𝑪𝑨 =𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵 (𝑻)¿

→

Rav Rcv
+↑ ∑ 𝑭 𝒚 =𝟎,𝑪 𝒀 −𝟕𝟎𝟕.𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝟓°=𝟎⇒𝑪𝒀 =𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵(𝑻)+↑
Problem 2: Determine magnitude and nature of
the forces in the truss loaded and supported as
shown in the figure.
𝟒𝒎
Step – I: Draw FBD of whole structure (include
forces from supports)
Step – II: Find forces at support
𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎
𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵
𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬
,

𝟒𝒎

𝑯𝑨 A 𝜃 H G F

𝟑 𝒎 𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟑 𝒎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵𝟑 𝒎
𝑽𝑭
𝟒 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟓 𝟓
 𝟒 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬
𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐀
𝟒𝒎
𝑭 𝑨𝑩=𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌 𝑵 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑)
𝑭 𝑨𝑯 =𝟎 𝑯 𝑨 =𝟎 A 𝜃 H G F

𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎
𝑽 𝑨 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝑽 𝑭 =𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒌 𝑵

𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐁 𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐇

𝑭 𝑪𝑯
𝑭 𝑩𝑪 =𝟕𝟓𝒌 𝑵 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑) 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑭 𝑪𝑯 =𝟏𝟎𝒌 𝑵 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑)
𝑭 𝑯𝑮
𝑭 𝑩𝑯 =𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒌 𝑵 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆) 𝟎 𝑭 𝑯𝑮 =𝟕𝟓 𝒌 𝑵 (𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆)

𝟗𝟎
 𝟒 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬

𝟒𝒎

𝑯 𝑨 =𝟎 A 𝜃 H G F

𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎
𝑽 𝑨 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝑽 𝑭 =𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒌 𝑵
𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐂
𝟕𝟓 𝑭 𝑪𝑫
𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐃

𝟏𝟎 𝑭 𝑪𝑮
 𝟒 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬

𝟒𝒎

𝑯 𝑨 =𝟎 A 𝜃 H G F

𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎
𝑽 𝑨 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝑽 𝑭 =𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒌 𝑵

𝐅𝐁𝐃𝐨𝐟 𝐉 𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐆
𝟎
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑭 𝑮𝑬
𝑭 𝑮𝑭
𝟕𝟓

𝟏𝟐𝟎
 𝟒 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬

𝟒𝒎

𝑯 𝑨 =𝟎 A 𝜃 H G F

𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎 𝟑𝒎
𝑽 𝑨 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝟗𝟎𝒌 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌 𝑵 𝑽 𝑭 =𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒌 𝑵