

Relational Algebra
 Relational Query Languages
• Query languages: Allow manipulation and
retrieval of data from a database.
• Relational model supports simple, powerful
QLs:
– Strong formal foundation based on logic.
– Allows for much optimization.
Formal Relational Query
Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form the
basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL),
and for implementation:
Relational Algebra: More operational,
very useful for representing execution
plans.

Relational Calculus: Lets users describe

what they want, rather than how to
compute it. (Non-procedural,
declarative.)
 Preliminaries
• A query is applied to relation instances,
and the result of a query is also a
relation instance.
– Schemas of input relations for a query
are fixed (but query will run over any
legal instance)
– The schema for the result of a given
query is also fixed. It is determined
by the definitions of the query
language constructs.
 Relational Algebra: 5 Basic
Operations
• Selection ( ) Selects a subset of
rows from relation (horizontal).
• Projection ( ) Retains only wanted

columns from relation (vertical).
• Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine
two relations.
• Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not
in r2.
• Union ( ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.
 sid bid day
Example Instances
R1
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96

S1 sid sname rating age

bid bname color 22 dustin 7 45.0
101 Interlake blue 31 lubber 8 55.5
102 Interlake red 58 rusty 10 35.0
103 Clipper green
104 Marine red S2
sid sname rating age
Boats
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
 Projection

• Examples: age(S2)  ;
sname,rating
(S2)
• Retains only attributes that are in the
“projection list”.
• Schema of result:
– exactly the fields in the projection
list, with the same names that they had
in the input relation.
• Projection operator has to eliminate
duplicates (How do they arise? Why
remove them?)
– Note: real systems typically don’t do
duplicate elimination unless the user
explicitly asks for it. (Why not?)
 sname rating
Projection yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
sid sname rating age  sname,rating (S 2)
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 age
S2 35.0
55.5
 age(S2)
 Selection ()
• Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.
• Result is a relation.
Schema of result is same as that of the input
relation.
• Do we need to do duplicate elimination?

sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 sname rating
31 lubber 8 55.5
yuppy 9
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 rusty 10
 rating 8(S2)  sname,rating( rating 8(S2))
 Union and Set-Difference

• All of these operations take two

input relations, which must be
union-compatible:
– Same number of fields.
– `Corresponding’ fields have the
same type.

• For which, if any, is duplicate

elimination required?
 Union
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
S1 28 yuppy 9 35.0
sid sname rating age S1 S2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Set
Difference
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 S1 S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1

sid sname rating age sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 44 guppy 5 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
S2 – S1
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Cross-Product
• S1 x R1: Each row of S1 paired with each row
of R1.
• Q: How many rows in the result?
• Result schema has one field per field of S1
and R1, with field names `inherited’ if
possible.
– May have a naming conflict: Both S1 and R1
have a field with the same name.
– In this (case, can
C(1 sid use
1, 5  sidthe
2), S1renaming
R1)
operator:
 Cross Product Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/ 10/96
R1 X S1 = 22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/ 12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/ 10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/ 12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/ 10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/ 12/96
 Compound Operator:
Intersection
• In addition to the 5 basic operators,
there are several additional “Compound
Operators”
– These add no computational power to the
language, but are useful shorthands.
– Can be expressed solely with the basic
ops.

• Intersection takes two input relations,

which must be union-compatible.
• Q: How to express it using basic
operators?
R  S = R  (R  S)
 Intersection
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 sid sname rating age
58 rusty 10 35.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
S1 58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28
31
yuppy
lubber
9
8
35.0
55.5
S1 S2
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
 Compound Operator: Join
• Joins are compound operators involving cross
product, selection, and (sometimes) projection.
• Most common type of join is a “natural join” (often
just called “join”). R S conceptually is:
– Compute R X S
– Select rows where attributes that appear in both relations
have equal values
– Project all unique atttributes and one copy of each of the
common ones.
• Note: Usually done much more efficiently than this.
• Useful for putting “normalized” relations back
together.
 Natural Join Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day 22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

R1 S1 =

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
 Other Types of Joins
• Condition Join (or “theta-join”):

R c S   c ( R S)
• Result schema same as that of cross-
product.
• May have fewer tuples than cross-
product.

• Equi-Join: Special case: condition c

contains only conjunction of equalities.
 “Theta” Join Example
sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1
S1 R1 =
 S1.sidR1.sid

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
 Compound Operator: Division

• Useful for expressing “for all” queries

like:

Find sids of sailors who

have reserved all boats.
• For A/B attributes of B are subset of attrs
of A.
– May need to “project” to make this happen.
• E.g., let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have

 y:
A Bfield
only x  y  B( x, y  A) 
A/B contains all x tuples such that for every y
tuple in B, there is an xy tuple in A.
Examples of Division A/B
sno pno pno pno pno
s1 p1 p2 p2 p1
s1 p2
B1 p4 p2
s1 p3
B2 p4
s1 p4
s2 p1 sno B3
s2 p2 s1
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1
A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3
 Expressing A/B Using Basic
Operators
• Division is not essential op; just a useful
shorthand.
– (Also true of joins, but joins are so
common that systems implement joins
specially.)
• Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are
not `disqualified’ by some y value in B.
– x value is disqualified if by attaching y
value from B, we obtain an xy tuple that
Disqualified
is not in A.x 
values: x (( x ( A) B)  A)
A/B:  x ( A) Disqualified
 x values
 sid bid day
Reserves
Examples 22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
sid sname rating age
Sailors
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
•
58 rusty 10 35.0

Boats
bid bname color
101 Interlake Blue
102 Interlake Red
103 Clipper Green
104 Marine Red
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved
boat #103
• Solution 1:  sname (( Re serves)  Sailors)
bid 103

• Solution 2:  sname ( (Re serves  Sailors))

bid 103
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved
a red boat

• Information about boat color only

available in Boats; so need an extra
join:
 sname (( Boats)  Re serves  Sailors)
color ' red '

A more efficient (???) solution:

 sname( (( ( Boats))Res)Sailors)
 sid bid color'red '


query optimizer can find this given the first solu

 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or
a green boat
• Can identify all red or green boats,
then find sailors who’ve reserved one
of these boats:
 (Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red '  color ' green '
 sname(Tempboats  Re serves  Sailors)
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and
a green boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must
identify sailors who’ve reserved red
boats, sailors who’ve reserved green
boats, then find the intersection (note
that sid is a key for Sailors):
 (Tempred,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' red '
 (Tempgreen,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' green'

 sname((Tempred  Tempgreen)  Sailors)

 Find the names of sailors who’ve
reserved all boats
• Uses division; schemas of the input
relations to / must be carefully
chosen:
 (Tempsids, ( Re serves) / ( Boats))
sid, bid bid
 sname (Tempsids  Sailors)

nd sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ b

..... /  ( Boats)
bid bname ' Interlake'