AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

Module - 5

Dr. Anand S N
Professor & Head
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
Mangalore
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

• Mechanically Operated Control system

• Push-pull control rod systems.
• Cable and pulley systems.

• Hydraulically Operated Control system

• Fly by wire control systems
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
MECHANICALLY OPERATED CONTROL
SYSTEM

Push-pull control rod systems

Cable and pulley systems
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS

• Hydraulic system: Transmits the power from one point to another through
the incompressible fluids like oil.
• A hydraulic system uses a fluid under pressure to drive machinery or move
mechanical components.
• Virtually all aircraft make use of some hydraulically powered components.
• In light, general aviation aircraft, this use might be limited to providing
pressure to activate the wheel brakes.
• In larger and more complex aero planes, the use of hydraulically powered
components is much more common.
• Depending upon the aircraft concerned, a single hydraulic system, or two or
more hydraulic systems working together, might be used to power any or all.
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS

Advantage of hydraulic system:

1.Light weight and easy to maintain
2.Efficiency almost 100% with negligible losses due to friction
3.We can develop practically unlimited force
4.Easily transfer the force in curved path also
Disadvantage of hydraulic system:
1.Possibility of leakage
2.Contamination by foreign matter in the system can cause malfunction of any
unit
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS
PARTS CONTROLLED BY HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
• Wheel brakes
• Nose wheel steering
• Landing gear retraction/extension
• Flaps and slats
• Thrust reversers
• Spoilers/speed brakes
• Flight control surfaces
• Cargo doors/loading ramps
• Windshield wipers
• Propeller pitch control
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS
BASIC COMPONENTS
• A hydraulic system consists of
the hydraulic fluid plus three
major mechanical components.
• Those components are:
• The “pressure generator” or
hydraulic pump
• The hydraulically powered
“motor” which powers the
component concerned
• The system “plumbing” which
contains and channels the fluid
throughout the aircraft as
required.
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS
BASIC COMPONENTS
HYDRAULIC FLUID
• Fluid is the medium via which a hydraulic system transmits its energy and,
theoretically, practically any fluid could be utilized.
• The operating pressure (3000 to 5000 psi) that most aircraft hydraulic
systems generate.
• High Flash Point.
• In the event of a hydraulic leak, fluid ignition should not occur at the normal
operating temperatures of the surrounding components.
• Special hydraulic fluids with fire resistant properties have been developed for
aviation use. These fluids are phosphate esters and, unlike mineral oil based
hydraulic fluids,
• Adequate Viscosity
• Lubricant Properties.
• Thermal Capacity/Conductivity
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS
BASIC COMPONENTS
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
• Gear Pumps.
• Gear pumps use meshing gears to pump fluid. Gear pumps are fixed
displacement type pumps as they move a specific amount of fluid
per rotation. Gear pumps may be used on low pressure systems
(under 1500 psi) but are generally not suitable for high pressure
applications

• Fixed Displacement Piston Pumps.

• Piston pumps utilize a piston moving in a cylinder to pressurize a
fluid. A fixed displacement pump moves a specific amount of fluid
with each stroke.

• Variable Displacement Piston Pumps.

• This is the most common type of pump on large aircraft. The
variable displacement design allows the pump to compensate for
changes in the system demand by increasing or decreasing the fluid
output. This allows near constant system pressure to be maintained.
 HYDRAULLIC SYSTEMS
BASIC COMPONENTS
SYSTEM "PLUMBING" COMPONENTS

• Reservoir.
• Filters.
• Shut Off Valves.
• Control Valves.
• Pressure Relief Valve.
• Hydraulic Fuses.
• Accumulators.
 HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM FOR
LARGE AIRCRAFT
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFT
 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

• Pneumatic systems use compressed air as a working fluid and it acts much
like the hydraulic systems we already described previously in our articles.
• In comparison with hydraulics there are advantages to be found by using air
instead of hydraulic fluid to transmit power.
• The principles (Pascal's law) in using air are the same as for hydraulic fluids
but with a remarkable difference.
 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

Pneumatic system supplies air for the following systems

• Air conditioning and pressurization
• Engine starting
• Anti icing/deicing
• Hydraulic reservoir system
• Emergency lowering of landing gear and braking
• Nose wheel steering
• Passenger door
 LOW
PRESSURE
PNEUMATIC
SYSTEM
 HIGH PRESSURE
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

• Advantages of air
• No fire problem - Air will not burn by itself, however, bottles can explode and
cause damage
• Light weight - Air systems do not need a return line as is the case with hydraulic
fluids
• Simple - Pneumatic systems are by design very simple
• Supply - Air can be pumped in from around us and is virtually unlimited in supply

• Disadvantages
• It is not suitable for large and heavy mechanical devices.
• Air must be compressed to a large degree to have enough energy and this would
require large air tanks and actuators with very high working pressures.
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
IMPORTANCE

• Oxygen — the life-sustaining gas we need in order to survive.

• At higher altitude we require supplemental oxygen due to the decreased density of the
air.
• At higher altitudes in non-pressurized aircraft, pilots require it to avoid hypoxia, a
physiological condition.
• Pressurized aircraft rely on oxygen systems as a supplement when pressurization
problems occur.
• Aircraft emergency oxygen systems are emergency equipment fitted to pressurized
commercial aircraft, intended for use when the cabin pressurization system has failed.
• It consists of a number of individual oxygen masks stored in compartments near
passenger seats and near areas like lavatories and galleys , and an oxygen source.
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS

• Oxygen in its natural state is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.

• Oxygen is considered to be the most important of all the elements to life.
• It forms about 21% of the atmosphere by volume and 23% by weight.
• It makes up nearly one-half of the earth’s crust and approximately one-fifth
of the air we breath.
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
TYPES OF OXYGEN

• Breathing oxygen (MIL-O-2721OD) for aircraft is use is supplied in two types

i.e Type-I and Type-II.
• Type-I is gaseous oxygen and stored in high pressure steel cylinder under a
pressure between 1800 to 2400 psi. It is mainly used in civil aircraft due to
ease of handling.
• Type-II is liquid oxygen and it’s a pale blue transparent liquid which remains
in a liquid condition under standard pressure at a temperature of about -188
degree C and stored in a vented Dewar bottle, which is double walled steel
container. Its used in a military aircraft due to special handling requirements.
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
OXYGEN SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
• Continuous flow up to 7600 meters for both passenger and flight crew.
• Diluter demand up to 12200 meters widely used for flight crew particularly in
large transport aircraft.
• Pressure demand above 12200 meters.
• Chemical oxygen generator system.
OXYGEN SYSTEM
CONTINUOUS
FLOW OXYGEN
SYSTEM
• The continuous flow oxygen
system allows a metering
amount of oxygen to
continuously flow into the
mask.
• The system can be used up
to 5500 meters with a
cannula and 7600 meters
with mask.
• Unpressurised aircraft flying
at higher altitudes may have
continuous flow oxygen
system for the passengers
and diluter demand oxygen
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
DILUTER DEMAND OXYGEN SYSTEM
• In diluter demand oxygen
system, the oxygen is
metered to the mask where it
is diluted with cabin air by an
airflow metering assembly
referred to as diluter demand
regulator, which regulates the
amount of air to be diluted on
the basis of cabin altitude.
• The mixture of oxygen and air
flows only when a person
inhales through the mask.
Thus wastage is minimum.
• Almost all pressurized turbine
engined aircraft have a diluter
demand oxygen system for
flight crew and the continuous
low system for the
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
CHEMICAL OXYGEN GENERATOR
SYSTEM
• Here oxygen is produced by the chemical
generator and dispenser units.
• Each chemical generator is separate and
supplies to individual masks.
• The oxygen generators are metal-cased
cylindrical devices.
• A spring-loaded firing mechanism is at one end
of the generator. An output manifold and a
relief valve are at the other end.
• Sodium chlorate and iron react to make salt
and gaseous oxygen.
• After the reaction starts, it cannot be stoped.
 OXYGEN SYSTEM
PORTABLE OXYGEN SYSTEM

• Portable oxygen cylinders are

used for first aid purpose.
• Each portable oxygen cylinder
is a separate system.
• The oxygen is stored in a steel
cylinder under high pressure of
1800 psi at 21 degree C.
 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
• Air conditioning system
• Air cycle cooling system
• Freon vapor cycle cooling systems

• Aircraft pressurization system

 ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL SYSTEM
AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM
• The name air cycle comes from
the principle of cooling the air
without the use of refrigerants
by compression and expansion
of hot bleed air.
• The use of air as a refrigerant is
based on the principle that
when a gas expands
isentropically from a given
temperature, its final
temperature at the new
pressure is much lower.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

• Fig: A functional
description of air cycle
cooling system for a large
turbine engine aircraft.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
FREON VAPOR CYCLE
COOLING SYSTEMS
• Vapour cycle cooling system makes
use of the fact that a liquid can be
vaporized at any temperature by
changing the pressure above it.
• Liquids that boil at low temperatures
are most desirable for the use as
refrigerants.
• The principle of vapour cycle cooling is
based on the ability of a refrigerant to
absorb the heat in the process of
changing from liquid to gas.
• Comparatively large quantity of heat is
absorbed when liquids are evaporated.
• In an aircraft, the refrigerant changes
from liquid to vapour and in doing so
absorb the heat from the cabin. As this
heat is taken out from the aircraft, the
refrigerant returns to liquid stste.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
AIRCRAFT PRESSURIZATION
SYSTEM
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
 Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with information about the
flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and direction.
 They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and
make turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the horizon.
 The flight instruments are of particular use in conditions of poor visibility, such as in clouds, when such
information is not available from visual reference outside the aircraft.
BASIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
Altimeter
The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference
between the pressure.
It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings.
As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher
altitude.
The opposite effect occurs when descending.
Airspeed indicator
The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air.
It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube relative to the ambient static pressure.
The Indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature in order to obtain the
True airspeed (TAS).
Vertical speed indicator
The VSI (also called as rate of climb indicator) senses changing air pressure, and displays that information to
the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per second or knots.
The image on the below shows we are in level flight (VSI = 0). Keep in mind that all aircraft tend to vary their altitude, even when
trimmed for straight and level flight.
Attitude Indicator (artificial horizon)
The attitude indicator shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon.
From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the
horizon (pitch).
This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility.
Turn and slip indicator
In aviation, the turn and slip indicator (turn and bank indicator) and the turn coordinator variant are
essentially two aircraft flight instruments in one device.
One indicates the rate of turn, or the rate of change in the aircraft's heading, the other part indicates whether the
aircraft is in coordinated flight, showing the slip or skid of the turn.
Heading Indicator
This instrument is a directional gyro and shows you the direction you are heading.
In many advanced aircraft the heading indicator is replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) which
provides the same heading information, but also assists with navigation.
 AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS
• The fuel system is designed to provide an uninterrupted flow of clean fuel
from the fuel tanks to the engine.
• The fuel must be available to the engine under all conditions of
engine power, altitude, attitude, and during all approved flight
maneuvers
TWO COMMON CLASSIFICATIONS APPLY TO FUEL SYSTEMS IN
SMALL AIRCRAFT:

Gravity-feed
Fuel-pump systems.
 GRAVITY FEED SYSTEMS.
 The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to transfer the fuel from
the tanks to the engine.
 For example, on high-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks are installed in the wings.
 This places the fuel tanks above the carburetor, and the fuel is gravity fed
through the system and into the carburetor.
 If the design of the aircraft is such that gravity cannot be used to transfer
fuel, fuel pumps are installed.
 WORKING OF GRAVITY FEED
SYSTEMS.

 The system normally comprises of two fuel tanks

 The outlets from the tanks are connected to the selector valve which helps to
draw the fuel from the separate tanks or both the tanks together.
 Then the fuel passes through the strainer and to the carburetor unit.
 Fuel for the primer is drawn from the strainer.
 FUEL PRIMER
 Both gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems may incorporate a fuel primer into the
system.
 The fuel primer is used to draw fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the
cylinders prior to starting the engine
 During cold weather, when engines are difficult to start, the fuel primer helps
because there is not enough heat available to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor.
 It is important to lock the primer in place when it is not in use.If the knob is free to
move, it may vibrate out during flight and can cause an excessively rich
mixture.
 PRESSURE FEED SYSTEM.
 If the design of the aircraft is such that gravity cannot be used to transfer
fuel, fuel pumps are installed.
 For example, on low-wing airplanes, the fuel tanks in the wings are located
below the carburetor.
 Aircraft with fuel-pump systems have two fuel pumps.
 The main pump system is engine driven with an electrically driven
auxiliary pump provided for use in engine starting and in the event the
engine pump fails.
 GENERALIZED FUEL SYSTEMS.
• The fuel tanks are installed on the wings and fuselage to store fuel for the use by
engines.
• Main tanks – on the wings ; Center tanks – on the fuselage
• Pressure fueling system enables to add fuel into each tank.
• Both main and center tank has two booster pumps.
• Center tank supplies fuel at high pressure, so it is used first
than the main tanks.
• The Engine Fuel Feed system supplies the fuel from the fuel tank to the engines.
• Cross Feed Valves permits a single fuel tank to supply fuel for
both the engines.
• Water scavenge jet pumps are installed in the fuel tanks to remove water
from low points of each tank to avoid corrosion.
• Surge tanks collect fuel over flow only.
• The fuel over flow in left and right surge tanks drains
to right and left main tanks.
• Fuel vent systems keeps the pressure of the ffuel tanks near the ambient
pressure.
• Pressure relief valves prevents damage to the wing structure when there is
huge pressure difference.
 AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEM.
 The aerospace planform needs to navigate the aircraft with sufficient
accuracy to a target
 Fuel efficiency is also a major concern.
 Some other features are (i) Avoiding the air traffic (ii) Tight airline
schedule. (iii) Rules for military and Civil A/C.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS.

 Radio navigation systems

 Classic dead reckoning systems.
 Inertial navigation system.
 Satellite based navigation system
 Integrated navigational systems
 RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS.
• There are 3 types under Radio Navigation system

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIO RANGE
NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

• It provides the information about the transverse distance between the aircraft and the
radio ground station.
 Its physical principle is based on runtime measurement, where the relative slope distance
between the DME ground station and the aircraft is calculated.
R=c*t/2
 where c = 299.792.458 m/s is the speed of light and t is the runtime between sending out the
signal from the aircraft and receiving the response from the DME ground station.
 In practice there is a system specific time shift of 50 μs introduced to the runtime signals
calculated
• The accuracy of the DME is therefore limited by the combination of flight level and
relative distance
• Due to the interrogation and respond principle of the system the maximum capacity of a
single DME station is limited to 360 aircraft theoretically.
• In practice a lower amount of about 250 aircraft can use the station.
• DME stations are very often combined with VOR stations, which provide the
corresponding relative bearing or directional information.
• Providing both type of information the precise aircraft position can be determined.
 NON DIRECTIONALBEACON
 In combination with the onboard device called “Automatic Direction Finder” (ADF) this
system also provides directional information.
 The operational range of the ground station is between 25–150 nm.
NDBs are often used in the vicinity of airports,
 They are widely used by airliners for cross-check or as “locators” for pre-visual clearance to an
airport.
 Since NDB provides only horizontal directional information it is used
as a Non-Precision-Approach device.
 Because it is not providing the direction, which the aircraft is approaching to and it is sensitive
to interferences.
 The NDB cannot be used as a primary navigation device. Only in conjunction with the ADF
installed on aircraft accurate directional information can be determined.
 VOR
• The Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR) provides a relative bearing
information to the aircraft.
• Typically VOR stations are positioned along major traffic routes,
and offer a measurement range of about 130 nm.
• Like DME stations also VOR stations are identified by an individual code, which is
associated to the radio frequency of the station.
• The pilot has to set this code or frequency in the cockpit, when he
wants to use the VOR station.
• VOR stations are also placed within the vicinity or directly on the site of airports,
• Their range is limited to approximately 25 nm.
 SATELLITE BASED SYSTEM.
• In the 1970s, the American military services developed a satellite- based navigation system
called Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) of Global Positioning System (GPS).
• Four satellites each are operating on at least six nearly circular trajectories at about 20200
km altitude. The resulting 24 satellites are required to ensure a worldwide coverage over 24
h,
• Also four different satellites are required to provide the necessary runtime information to
calculate the position parameters latitude, longitude, altitude and time.
• In conjunction with high precision short-term navigation devices like Inertial Navigation
Systems (INS) more dynamic and flexible approaches and departures will become possible.
 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM.

 Onboard navigation subsystems are to provide two main functions.

 First, they have to deliver the critical control parameter like air data, attitudes,
angular rates and acceleration.
 Second, the aircraft positioning information like position, time reference and speed is
needed to allow more accurate and safer aircraft guidance.
 Gyroscopes and accelerometers are known as inertial sensors because they are
representing the property to resist a change in momentum.
 This principle is used to sense angular and linear motion.
 INTEGRATEDNAVIGATION SYSTEM

 Based on the principle navigation systems described previously today integrated

navigation systems are used to provide high performance navigation in terms of
accuracy, reliability, weight and energy consumption.
 Integrated navigation merges the positive characteristics of single navigation
devices and tries to compensate their disadvantages.
 Because radio navigation systems as described before are ground-based systems
they are typically limited in their range and show increasing inaccuracies in
position determination with increasing distance.
 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

• Communication systems involves the voice transmission and reception between aircraft
or aircraft and ground
• Some special systems are required for transmitting the data as
well as good quality transmission should be achieved
• Radios are used for this purpose.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 Energy required for illuminating the light is transferre d by alternating the EMF in the
core of the transformer.
 Basic radio communication also works on the same principle by transmission and
reception of EMF through space.
• Alternating current passing through conductor creates a EMF around the conductor.
• Energy is stored in these fields and returns to the conductor for typical transforming operation.
• As frequency of current alternation increases, lesser energy stored in the field returns to the conductor and then emitted into
space in form of EM waves