Unit X:Memory

D E VE LOP M E N TAL P S YC H OLOGY

Introduction
Memory is the cognitive process through which we encode, store, and retrieve information over
time.
It enables us to retain knowledge of past experiences, learn new information, and apply it to
current or future situations.
Memory serves as the foundation of learning, decision-making, and adapting to the
environment. It operates through three key processes:
1.Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored.
2.Storage: Maintaining information over time.
3.Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed
Types of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
•Definition: The brief retention of sensory information immediately after perception.
•Characteristics:
• Very high capacity but extremely short duration (milliseconds to a few seconds).
• Acts as a buffer for sensory input before attention directs it to short-term memory.

•Types:
• Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (e.g., briefly seeing a flash of light).
• Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (e.g., retaining the last words spoken in a conversation).
Cont..
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
•Definition: Temporary storage for information actively being used.
•Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information
for a brief period, typically up to 20-30 seconds.
•Information in STM is often actively rehearsed to maintain it or transferred to long-term
memory
•Characteristics:
• Limited capacity: 7 ± 2 items (Miller’s Law).
• Short duration: Approximately 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.
• Vulnerable to distraction or interference.

•Example: Memorizing a phone number long enough to dial it.

 Cont..
3. Working Memory
• Definition: An active extension of short-term memory, used for manipulating and processing
information.
• Components (Baddeley & Hitch Model):
1. Central Executive: Controls attention and coordinates the flow of information between subsystems.
2. Phonological Loop: Handles verbal and auditory information.
3. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information.
4. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and
long-term memory.
• Example: Solving a math problem requires active processing of numbers, equations, and steps, making
use of the central executive and other components.
Cont..
4. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory is a relatively permanent store of information with a vast
capacity and duration. It is the memory that holds information we have learned and experienced over
extended periods.
• Explicit (Declarative) Memory:
• Semantic Memory: Involves general facts and knowledge about the world (e.g., knowing that Paris
is the capital of France).
• Episodic Memory: Involves personal experiences and specific events (e.g., remembering your last
birthday party).
• Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory:
• Procedural Memory: Involves the knowledge of how to perform tasks, like riding a bicycle or playing
a musical instrument.
• Priming: Refers to the unconscious influence of past experiences on current behavior.
• Classical Conditioning: Involves learning through association, like Pavlov’s dogs associating a bell
with food.
Forgetting Processes in Long-Term
Memory

Forgetting in long-term memory refers to the inability to retrieve or access stored information
over time.
Several theories and mechanisms explain why forgetting occurs, highlighting how the intricate
processes of memory retrieval can fail.
Cont..
1. Encoding Failure
•Definition: Forgetting can occur when information is not effectively encoded into long-term
memory.
•Mechanism: If information is not attended to or processed deeply during learning, it may never
reach long-term storage.
•Example: Not remembering the details of a penny’s design despite seeing it often because the
information was not encoded meaningfully.
Cont..
2. Decay Theory
•Definition: Suggests that memory traces, or engrams, gradually fade over time if they are not
rehearsed or retrieved.
•Key Points:
a) Decay occurs due to the passage of time and lack of use.
b) It primarily applies to memories that are not reinforced.
•Criticism: Studies indicate that decay may not solely account for forgetting; other factors, such
as interference, play a significant role.
Cont..
3. Interference
Forgetting may occur when competing memories disrupt the retrieval process.
•Types of Interference:
1. Proactive Interference: Older memories hinder the learning or recall of new information.
•Example: Difficulty remembering a new phone number because of an old one.
2. Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts the recall of older memories.
•Example: Forgetting the details of an old work project after focusing on a new one.
Cont..
4. Retrieval Failure
•Definition: Forgetting due to the inability to access information that is stored in long-term
memory.
Mechanisms:
•Lack of Retrieval Cues: Information may be present in memory but cannot be accessed without
proper cues.
Example: Forgetting someone’s name but recalling it upon seeing their picture.
•State-Dependent Retrieval Failure: Memory recall is influenced by the emotional or
physiological state during encoding.
Example: Remembering details of an event while in a similar mood or environment as during
encoding.
Cont..
5. Cue-Dependent Forgetting
•Definition: Forgetting occurs when retrieval cues are insufficient or mismatched.
•Context and State Dependency:
• Memories are tied to specific contexts or states, such as location or emotional states.
• If the context or state changes, recall becomes harder.

•Example: Struggling to remember information studied in a quiet room while taking a test in a
noisy classroom.
 Cont..
6. Motivated Forgetting
• Definition: The active suppression or unconscious repression of unpleasant or traumatic memories.
• Theories:
Based on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, individuals may repress painful memories to protect themselves emotionally.
• Criticism: Empirical evidence for repression is debated, but suppression is widely observed in everyday life.

7. Consolidation Failure
• Definition: Forgetting occurs when the process of memory consolidation, which stabilizes memories, is disrupted.
• Causes:
• Sleep deprivation: Sleep is essential for consolidating long-term memories.
• Brain injuries: Physical trauma or neurological conditions can interfere with memory consolidation.
8. Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve is a graphical representation of how memory retention declines
over time, developed by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century.
Rapid Decline in Retention:
Memory retention drops significantly within the first few hours after learning. Without reinforcement
or review, as much as 50% of newly learned information can be forgotten within the first hour.
Gradual Plateau:
After the initial rapid forgetting, the rate of decline slows down. Over time, the curve levels off,
indicating that the information still remembered becomes more stable in memory.
Retention Timeframe:
Ebbinghaus showed that after one day, memory retention often drops to about 30%.Beyond that,
further forgetting occurs more slowly but persists unless the material is reviewed.
What factors affect the curve?
Time: The amount of time that passes since learning the information
Memory strength: How well the information is stored in the brain
Meaningfulness: How important or relevant the information is
Stress: How stressed or tired the person is
Presentation: How the information was presented
Strategies to Mitigate Forgetting
1.Spaced Repetition: Revisiting information at intervals to strengthen memory traces.
2.Elaborative Encoding: Associating new information with existing knowledge to enhance
retention.
3.Mnemonic Devices: Using memory aids like acronyms or visual imagery.
4.Contextual Learning: Studying in environments similar to where recall is expected.
Forgetting is not always a failure but an adaptive mechanism to filter irrelevant information,
optimize cognitive resources, and promote learning efficiency. Understanding the processes of
forgetting allows for the development of effective strategies to enhance memory retention and
retrieval.