Wireless Communication

Unit-I
Cellular Fundamentals
Course outline for Unit 1
 Introduction
 What is Wireless communication
 History of Wireless communication
 CELLULAR FUNDAMENTALS
 Evolution of cellular mobile system (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G,5G)
 A basic cellular system
 Cell shape, concept of frequency reuse
 Cellular system architecture, operation of cellular
systems
 Mobility Management: Hand off techniques , Types of

hand off
Evolution to cellular networks – communication anytime,
anywhere
 The origin of wireless communications can be traced back to the year
1857, when the behaviour of electromagnetic waves was explained
mathematically using four equations by James Clerk Maxwell
 Radio communication was invented by Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo
Marconi: in 1893, Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of
wireless (radio) telegraphy; Guglielmo Marconi conducted long distance
(over sea) telegraphy 1897
 In 1940 the first walkie-talkie was used by the US military
 In 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from AT&T’s Bell Labs invented
the transistor (semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals)
 AT&T introduced commercial radio communication: car phone – two way
radio link to the local phone network
 In 1979 the first commercial cellular phone service was launched by the
Nordic Mobile Telephone (in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark).
Frequency Carriers/Channels

◦ The information from sender to receiver is carried over a

well defined frequency band. This is called a channel.

◦ Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in KHz)

and Capacity (bit-rate).

◦ Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to

transmit information in parallel and independently.
Why Wireless communication

Freedom from wires:

◦ No cost of installation wires or renewing.
◦ No bunches of wire running here and there.
◦ Auto magical instantaneous communication
without physical connection setup, for e.g.
Bluetooth ,Wi-Fi.

Global Communication:
◦ Communication can reach where wiring is
infeasible or costly e.g. Rural areas, old buildings
outer space.
Wireless Communication: Range Comparison
Typical Frequencies

FM Radio 88 MHz
TV Broadcast 200 MHz
GSM Phones 900 MHz
GPS 1.2 GHz
PCS Phones 1.8 GHz
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
also
Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz
Difference between radio and cellular system
Technology with generations of Mobile
Cellular Networks
 The evolution of cellular communication systems is commonly

known by the 1G, 2G, 3G,4G and 5G designations

 First Generation
 Analog Systems
 Analog Modulation, mostly FM
 AMPS (Analog Mobile Phone System)
 FDMA/FDD multiple access
 Second Generation (2G)
 Digital Systems
 Digital Modulation
 Voice Traffic
 TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple access
 2.5G (Also called Interim Generation)
 Digital Systems
 Voice + Low-datarate Data
 3rd Generation
 Digital
 Voice + High-datarate Data
 Multimedia Transmission also
1G (first generation)
 1G (or 1-G) refers to the first generation of wireless telephone
technology (mobile telecommunications).
 These are the analog telecommunications standards that were
introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by
2G digital telecommunications.
 The main difference between the two mobile telephone
systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used by 1G
networks are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
 Examples: Analog Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS), cordless
systems with FDMA technique in the frequency range of 800-
900 MHz and Total Access Communication System (TACS)
Limitations of 1G:

Supports only speech

Low traffic capacity
Unreliable handover
Long-call setup time and frequent call drops
Inefficient use of bandwidth and poor battery
life
Poor voice quality and large phone size
Allows users to make voice calls in 1 country
only
2G (2nd generation)

 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the

GSM standard in Finland.

 Examples: Global System for Mobile (GSM) and US Time Division

Multiple Access (US-TDMA)

 2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access

(TDMA)-based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)-based

standards depending on the type of multiplexing used.

 2G technology supports data, speech, FAX, SMS, and WAP services

 The frequency bands used by GSM are 890–960 MHz and 1710–

1880 MHz
Limitations of 2G
 Provides low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps

to 28.8 kbps
 Circuit-switched network, where the end

systems are dedicated for the entire call session

 This causes reduction in usage of bandwidth

and resources
 Too many 2G standards globally (e.g. GSM,

CDMA, PDC, and PHS )

 Upgrade Paths for 2G Technologies

2G
IS-136
IS-95 GSM
PDC

2.5G
GPRS
IS-95B HSCSD
EDGE

3G
cdma200-1xRTT
W-CDMA
EDGE
cdma2000-1xEV,DV,DO
TD-SCDMA
cdma200-3xRTT
Interim Standard 95 (IS 95)

 IS-95 stands for Interim Standard 95 and is also known as CDMA . It was the first
ever CDMA-based digital cellular technology and was developed by Qualcomm. It
is an 2G cellular system based on DS-CDMA.
 GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that
is widely used by mobile phone users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM
digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams
of user data, each in its own time slot.
 IS-136 has effectively replaced IS-54. Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) is a second-
generation technology used in digital cellular telephone communication. It uses a
variation of TDMA which divides each cellular channel into individual time slots
in order to increase the amount of data that can be carried.
• IS-95B added a 64 Kbps packet capability, enabling data to be transmitted
to a CDMA cell phone.
• High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) is an enhancement in the data
rate of circuit switched data in a GSM network. HSCSD uses two
techniques to increase the data rate.
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data
standard on the 2G and 3G cellular communication network's global system
for mobile communications (GSM).
• Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) also known as Enhanced
GPRS (EGPRS), IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced Data rates for
Global Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that allows
improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible extension of
GSM.
2.5G Technology
 2.5G ("second and a half generation") is used to describe 2G-
systems that have implemented a packet-switched domain in
addition to the circuit-switched domain
 2.5G is also called as Interim Generation
 The mobile technology using GPRS standard has been termed as
2.5G
 Evolution of TDMA Systems
◦ HSCSD for 2.5G GSM
 Up to 57.6 Kbps data-rate
◦ GPRS for GSM and IS-136
 Up to 171.2 Kbps data-rate
◦ EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136
 Up to 384 Kbps data-rate
 Evolution of CDMA Systems
◦ IS-95B
 Up to 64 Kbps
Overview of 2.5G between 2G and 3G
HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched
Data)
HSCSD means that instead of one time slot, a mobile
station can use several time slots for a data connection
◦ Standardized in 1997 & released commercially in 2000

◦ It is a very simple upgrade to GSM

◦ Enhanced data codec with data rate 14.4 Kbps

◦ HSCSD is ideal for Internet access

◦ It simply require software upgrade at existing GSM base

station
◦ HSCSD allocates the used time slots constantly, even
when nothing is being transmitted
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
 GPRS will allow improved quality of data services as measured in
terms of reliability, real time
 With this technology, the data rates can be pushed up to 115 Kbps,

or even higher if one can forget error correction

 What is even more important than the increased throughput is that
GPRS is packet switched
 The maximum theoretical data rate is achieved when eight time slots
are used continuously
 GPRS is especially suitable for non real-time applications, such as e-
mail and web surfing
 It is not well suited for real-time applications, as the resource
allocation in GPRS is contention based.
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution)

◦ Advance upgrade to GSM Standard

◦ Uses an advance 8 - PSK for high data rate in addition to GMSK

(Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying)

◦ It has nine different air interfaces called Multiple Modulation Coding

Schemes (MCS)

◦ Include multicarrier Transmission.

◦ Require new Hardware and Software for its implementation.

◦ Up to 384 Kbps data-rate.

◦ If EDGE is used with GPRS, then the combination is known as

enhanced GPRS (EGPRS).
IS-95B

◦ The term CDMA-One is used to describe cellular networks based on IS-95A

and IS-95B technology. CDMA-One provides packet and circuit switched

data access through CDMA radio channels

◦ It is High speed data access to CDMA 2G tech.

◦ Single upgrade path for 3G evolution

◦ Support 64 different user channels

◦ Data speed up to 64 Kbps

◦ dedicating eight different orthogonal user channels simultaneously, and

theoretically it can achieve 8 × 14.4 = 115.2 Kbps

3G Wireless system
 The need for high-speed internet access, live video communications, and
simultaneous data and voice transmission led to the development of 3G
cellular networks.
 Developed in the late 1990s until present day
 3G operates in the frequency band of 1710–2170 MHz
 Japan is the first country having introduced 3G nationally, and in Japan
the transition to 3G is being largely completed during 2005/2006.
 It provides high transmission rates from 348 Kbps in a moving vehicle to
2 Mbps for stationary or mobile users
 Examples of 3G system are universal mobile telecommunication systems
(UMTS) and international mobile telecommunications at 2,000 MHz
 The 3G technology has added multimedia facilities to 2.5G phones
3G wireless system (continued)
 Services include:

◦ Global roaming

◦ Superior voice quality and video conference

◦ Data always add–on services (e-mail, personal organizer, etc.)

◦ Information for web surfing, music, news, corporate intranet,

transportation service etc.

◦ Purchasing – on-line shopping / banking, ticketing, gambling,

games, etc.
W-CDMA(UMTS) (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)
(Wide Band –Code Division Multiple Access)

 Packet-based wireless service.

 Wideband CDMA

 Packet data rate Up to 2.048 Mbps data-rates

 Future systems 8Mbps

 New spectrum is allocated for these technologies.

 Require expensive new base station.

 Each channel will support between 100-350

simultaneously voice call at once.
 It depends on antenna sectoring, propagation
conditions, user velocity, and antenna polarization.
 Limitations of 3G

 High bandwidth requirement

 High spectrum licensing fees

 Expense and bulk size of 3G phones

 Lack of 2G mobile user buy in for 3G wireless service

 Lack of network coverage because it is still a new service

 High prices of 3G mobile services in some countries

Future mobile generation networks (4G)
 Reasons to have 4G
 Support for interactive multi-media services: video teleconferencing
etc.
 The 4G mobile communications will have transmission rates up to
20 Mbps higher than that of 3G.
 4G is set to deliver 100 Mbps to a roaming mobile device globally,
and up to 1 Gbps to a stationary device
 What is new in 4G
 Entirely packet-switched network
 4G will bring almost the perfect real world wireless internetworking
called “WWWW: World Wide Wireless Web”
 4G is not a single defined technology or standard, but rather a
collection of technologies and protocols aimed at creating fully
packet-switched networks optimized for data
Evolution of Generations
COMPARISION
The Cellular Concept
◦ RF spectrum is a valuable and scarce commodity.

◦ RF signals attenuate over distance.

◦ Cellular network divides coverage area into cells, each served by its
own base station transceiver and antenna.

◦ Low power transmitters used by Base Stations; transmission range

determines cell boundary.

◦ RF spectrum divided into distinct groups of channels

◦ Adjacent cells are (usually) assigned different channel groups to avoid

interference.
◦ Cells separated by a sufficiently large distance to avoid mutual
interference can be assigned the same channel group frequency
reuse among co-channel cells.
Cellular services
 Voice communication
 Short Messaging Service (SMS)
 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) – to access the
Internet
Cells
A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system
• The term cellular comes from the honeycomb shape of the areas into
which a coverage region is divided.
• Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that
are represented as hexagons.
• Size varies depending on the landscape.
• The cellular network uses a number of low-power transmitters
called base stations (BSs) and each BS covers a unit area called a
“cell”
• Hexagons are generally used to represent the cells due to geometry
considerations and calculation purposes
Cell Shape
The regular hexagon is favoured by system designers for the following
reasons:
• It provides the best approximation to the circular Omni-directional radio
patterns achieved in practice.
• It is more economical to use since a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells
and hence fewer stations.
• It combines ease of geometry with the practical realization of overlapping
circles.
• For a given distance between the centre of a polygon and its farthest
perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area, and it almost
approximates a circular radiation pattern

Omnidirectional Antenna Radiation Patterns

Network cells
Types of cells

 Macro-cell – their coverage is large (approx 6 miles in

diameter); used in remote areas, high-power
transmitters and receivers are used.
 Micro-cell – their coverage is small (half a mile in
diameter) and are used in urban zones; low-powered
transmitters and receivers are used to avoid
interference with cells in another clusters.
 Pico-cell – covers areas such as building or a tunnel.
Cellular System Design Fundamentals
The Cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for replacing, a
single, high power transmitter with many low power transmitters, each
providing coverage to only small portion of the service area.

Each Base station is allocated a portion of total number of channels available

to the entire system, and nearby base stations are assigned different groups of
channels to minimize the interference between base stations.
Mobility Management


In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or
handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing
call or data session from one channel connected to the
core network to another channel

Process of transferring a MS from one base station

to another also called as ‘Handover’

Reasons for a Handoff to be conducted
The purposes of handoff are as follows:
• If the quality of a communication has become worse than
a threshold, a decision of handoff is made for rescuing
connection.
• It keeps a continuous communication with a moving
mobile, that is it avoids call termination.
• It improves the cellular network performance by reducing
the call drop rate and the congestion rate.
• It frees up some capacity for other users.
Handoff Strategies
Types of Handoff
Hard handoff
 Hard handoff: When the signal strength of a neighboring
cell exceeds that of the current cell, plus a threshold, the
mobile station is instructed to switch to a new frequency
band that is within the allocation of the new cell.
 Hard handoff: “break before make” connection

Hard Handoff between the MS and BSs

Soft Handoff
Soft handoff: a mobile station is temporarily
connected to more than one base station
simultaneously. A mobile unit may start out
assigned to a single cell.
Soft handoff: “make-before-break” connection.
 Multi-ways and softer handoffs

Soft Handoff between MS and BSTs

Softer Handoff
A softer handoff occurs when the mobile is
communicating with two sectors of the same
BS in a given cell simultaneously.
Comparison in Hand-off’s
Classification on basis of purpose
 Intra-Cell Handoff: If the mobile unit is assigned a new
channel within the same BS or cell is referred to as intra-
cell handoff. This is done to avoid interference or
channel quality reasons.
 Inter-Cell Handoff: If the connection to a mobile unit is
transferred over the cell boundary to a new cell or BS,
the handoff is known as inter-cell handoff. Inter-cell
handoff is mainly due to weak signal or bad channel
quality or traffic loading balancing reasons.
 Inter-System Handoff: If the handoff takes place
between two MSCs of different cellular systems is known
as intersystem handoff.
Practical handoff considerations
Using different antenna heights and different power levels
it is possible to provide large and small cells which are co-
located at a single location. This technique is called
umbrella cell approach and is used to provide large area
coverage to high speed users while providing small area
coverage to users traveling at low speed.
Types of Handoff protocols
The mobile unit and the BS are connected via
radio links which carry data as well as signalling
information
 3 types of handoff protocols which help in

providing continuous and QOS-guaranteed

service.
 Network-controlled handoff (NCHO)

 Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)

 Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)

Mobile Controlled Hand-Off (MCHO)
 The mobile phone is the only entity which measures the
handoff criteria and makes a decision based on them
 The MSC is not involved in the handoff process resulting
in reduced burden on the MSC
 The mobile has to choose the optimum BS based on the
measurements
 the mobile continuously monitors the radio signal
strengths and quality of surrounding BSs
 A handoff can be initiated if the signal strength of the
serving BS is lower than that of another BS by a certain
threshold
 Unit II
Basic Cellular Concept
Multiple access schemes

Frequency Division Time Division Multiple Code Division Multiple

Multiple Access Access Access
- when the subscriber - each subscriber is - each subscriber is
enters another cell a assigned a time slot to assigned a code which is
unique frequency is send/receive a data burst; is used to multiply the signal
assigned to him; used in digital systems sent or received by the
subscriber
The Control Channel
 This channel is used by a cellular phone to indicate its
presence before a frequency/time slot/code is allocated
to them.

Clusters
 The repeating regular pattern of cells is called cluster.
 A cluster is a group of cells.
 No channels are reused within a cluster.
The Cellular Concept
Frequency Reuse

 The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for

all the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency
reuse.
 It is a method used by service providers to improve the efficiency
of a cellular network and to serve millions of subscribers using a
limited radio spectrum.
 It is based on the fact that after a distance a radio wave gets
attenuated and the signal falls bellow a point where it can no
longer be used or cause any interference.
 A transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will have
only a limited coverage area.
 Beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by
another transmitter.
Frequency Reuse

 It involves assignment of proper frequency channels-

◦ To achieve system capacity,
◦ To achieve traffic density,
◦ To increase spectrum efficiency,
◦ To increase spectrum utilization.
 It divides allocated RF spectrum into total number of
available channels depending on channel bandwidth of
cellular system.
 The main requirement of mobile communication
systems is to make services available regardless of time
and place. This requirement enforces the reuse of
limited radio frequency spectrum
 In frequency reuse, several cells in the coverage area use
the same set of frequencies
Frequency Reuse
 Frequency reuse refers to the usage of the same
frequency carrier in different geographical locations that
are distant enough so that the interference caused by
using the same carrier is not a problem
 The total number of frequencies/channels available in a
cellular system are allocated to each cell by means of
frequency reuse technique so as to minimize the co-
channel and adjacent channel interference
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse concept
Consider cellular system with S duplex channels available, let each cell be
allocated a group of k channels (k<S) and if the S channels are divided
among N cells.
Available radio channels can be expressed as
S = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available
frequencies is called a cluster.
If it is replicated M times within the system, total no. of duplex channels:
C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given by
C = MKN
= MS
N = Cluster size and typically equal to 4,7,12.
19-cell reuse example (N=19)
In this example, N = 19 (i.e., I = 3, j =
2).
N = i2 + i*j + j2

To find the nearest co-channel

of a neighboring cell:
1. Move i cells along any chain
of hexagons.
2. Turn 60 degrees counter
clockwise.
3. Move j cell.
Figure 3.2 Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular
system.
Frequency Reuse Factor
 One important characteristic of cellular networks is the reuse of
frequencies in different cells
 The cells using the same set of channels (or frequencies) are known
as co-channel cells
 The distance between co-channel cells is known as co-channel
distance or frequency reuse distance and the interference caused by
the radiation from these cells is referred to as co-channel interference
 Minimization of co-channel interference requires a minimum co-
channel distance; i.e. the distance cannot be smaller than this
minimum distance
 In a cellular system of equal cell size, the co-channel interference is a
function of a frequency reuse factor or co-channel reuse ratio (q)
 The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is defined by the ratio
of distance between the frequency reusing cell sites (D) and the cell
radius (R) of the serving cell sites and is known as D/R ratio
Frequency Reuse Ratio
Co-channel Reuse Ratio
 Assuming same cell size and that the base stations
transmit the same power, the Co-channel interference
ratio becomes independent of the Transmitted power
and becomes function of Radius of the cell (R) and
Distance between centers of nearest co-channel cells
(D).
Interference
 Interference is anything which alters, modifies, or
disrupts a signal as it travels along a channel between a
source and a receiver
 The term typically refers to the addition of unwanted
signals to a useful signal
 Sources of Interference includes
 Another mobile in the same cell
 A call in progress in a neighboring cell
 Another base stations operating in the same
frequency band
 Any non-cellular system which leaks energy into the
cellular frequency band
Effects of Interference
On Voice Channels
• Causes cross talk- where the subscriber hears interference in the
background due to an undesirable transmission

On Control Channels
• Interference leads to missed calls and blocked calls due to error in
the digital signaling
• It is more pronounced in urban areas due to greater RF noise floor
and the large number of base stations and mobiles Capacity cannot
be increased.

Interference Types
The two major types of system generated interferences are

Co-channel interference

Adjacent channel interference

Interference Types
Co-Channel Interference:
• The co-channel interference (CCI) is crosstalk from two
different radio transmitters using the same frequency
• The CCI arises in the cellular mobile networks due to the
phenomenon of frequency reuse
• Signals at the same frequencies (co-channel signals)
arrive at the receiver from undesired transmitters located
in some other cells and lead to a deterioration in the
receiver performance
• Increase in carrier transmit power increases the interference
to neighboring co-channel cells.
Interference Types
Co-Channel Interference:
Interference Types
Adjacent channel interference:
• Also known as inter-channel interference, is the
interference caused by extraneous power from a signal in an
adjacent channel
• May be caused by inadequate filtering, such as incomplete
filtering of unwanted modulation products in frequency
modulation (FM) systems, improper tuning, or poor
frequency control in either the reference channel or the
interfering channel, or in both
• It results from imperfect receiver filters , which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the pass band
• Problem is severer if the user of adjacent channel is in close
proximity. Near-Far Effect
Co-channel & Adjacent channel Interference

Co-channel
interference
Adjacent-
channel
interference

Co-channel
cells

Adjacent-
channel cells
Near-Far Effect: Case 1

 The Mobile receiver is captured by the unintended, unknown

transmitter, instead of the desired base station
Near-Far Effect: Case 2

 The Base Station faces difficulty in recognizing the actual mobile user,
when the adjacent channel bleed over is too high.
Power Control to reduce interference
 In practical systems, the power level of every subscriber
is under constant control by the serving BS.
 Power control not only reduces interference levels but
also prolongs battery life.
 In CDMA spread spectrum systems, power control is a
key feature to ensure maximal utilization of the system
capacity.
 Reduced interference leads to higher capacity.
Approaches to Increase Capacity
 Frequency borrowing
◦ Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by
congested cells
 Cell splitting
◦ Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller
cells
 Cell sectoring
◦ Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped
sectors, each with their own set of channels.
 Microcells
◦ Distributes the coverage of the cell and extends the
cell boundary to hard-to–reach place
◦ Antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts.
Cell Splitting
◦Subdivide congested cell into several smaller cells
with
 Their own BS
 A corresponding reduction in antenna height & Tx
power.
◦Increases number of times channels are reused in an area.
◦More number of cells => more number of clusters =>more
channels => higher capacity
 The power transmitted in the small cells is reduced
compared to the power transmitted in the large cells as
it would require much less power to cover the cell
compared to the large cells
 In fact the power has to be reduced by a factor of
Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting
Cell Sectoring
 Co channel interference may be reduced by replacing
Omni-directional antenna by several directional
antennas.
 Given cell will receive interference and would transmit
with fraction of available co channel cells.
 Each sector uses directional antenna at the B.S and
assigned a set of channels.
 Partitioning into three 120 degree sectors or six 60
degree sectors.
 Amount of CCI reduced by number of sectors.
 Reduced Transmitter Power…

83
Cell Sectoring

84
Cell Sectoring

85
Cell Sectoring

◦ Larger frequency reuse factor, larger capacity.

◦ Replace omni-directional antennas at base station
with several directional antennas..
 3 sectors → 3 120° antennas
 6 sectors → 6 60° antennas
Interference in Sectoring
Interference in Sectoring
Microcell Zone
 The problem of sectoring can be addressed by the
Microcell zone concept.
 A cell is divided into microcell Zones.
 Each Zone is connected by a coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable or microwave link to the base station.
 As a mobile travels between zones within cell, it retains
the same channel i.e. no Hand-off..
 Channel switching and a channel active only within zone
of travelling.
 The microcell zone concept is related to sharing the
same radio equipment by different microcells
 As a mobile travels within a cell, it is served by the zone
with the strongest signal
Micro-zone concept
-Let each cell be divided into three zones.
ADVANTAGES
 Handoffs are reduced since the microcells within the
cell operate at the same frequency; no handover occurs
when the mobile unit moves between the microcells
 A given channel is active only in a particular zone. Thus,
interference is reduced and capacity is increased
 The base station radiation is localized and interference
is reduced. A given channel is active only in the
particular zone in which the mobile is traveling.
 Size of the zone apparatus is small. The zone site
equipment being small can be mounted on the side of a
building or on poles
 The co-channel interference is also reduced.