UNIT 2

FLOW THROUGH VARIABLE AREA DUCTS

Isentropic flow through variable area duct, T-S and h-s diagrams for nozzle and diffuser
flows, area ratio as a function of Mach number, Mass flow rate through nozzles and
diffusers, effect of friction in flow through nozzles.

 In the case of high speed flow (compressible flow), the change of state in flow
properties is achieved by the following three ways:-
1. Isentropic flow – With area change, treating the fluid to be non-viscous and
passage to be frictionless.
2. Fanno flow or frictional flow in a constant area duct - With friction,
considering the heat transfer between the surroundings and system to be
negligible.
3. Rayleigh flow in a constant area frictionless duct – With heat transfer,
assuming the fluid to be non-viscous.
 Convergent Divergent Nozzle: Continuous
acceleration of a real flow from subsonic Mach number
to supersonic Mach number.
 Purpose of a CD Nozzle: To get Supersonic velocity.
 Convergent Divergent
Diffuser: Continuous
deceleration of a real
flow from supersonic
Mach number to
subsonic Mach number
is impossible.

Note:- A real supersonic flow decelerates to a subsonic flow only through a SHOCK WAVE (UNIT 4)

Mach Nozzle Diffuser

Number
A p c A p c

M<1 decreases decreases increases increases increases decreases

M=1 A* p* c* =a* A* p* c* =a*

M>1 increases decreases increases decreases increases decreases

 ( ) [ ]
𝛾 +1
𝐴 1 2 ( 𝛾 −1 ) 𝑀 2 2 ( 𝛾 − 1)
1 1 2+𝛾 − 1
+ = =
𝛾 +1
∗
= + 𝛾 − 1 2 2 ( 𝛾 −1 ) 2 ( 𝛾 −1 )
𝐴 𝑀 ( 𝛾+ 1 ) ( 𝛾+1 )

 The variation of area ratio for subsonic and supersonic isentropic acceleration
and deceleration is shown below.

 In many compressible flow

calculations, the function

𝐴 𝑝
𝑋
𝐴∗ 𝑝 0

occurs frequently and this will be a

function of Mach number.
 Choking: Mass flow rate is maximum when M=1, i.e., when the flow is sonic.
 The maximum mass flow condition is reached when the throat pressure ratio

achieves critical value (pt=p*); there is no further increase in mass flow with
decrease in back pressure after this point. This condition is called “choking”.
 The phenomenon of choking exists only in compressible flow.

 Impulse Function or Wall Force

Function, F:
 The quantities pA and ρAC2 occur
frequently in some compressible
flow problem.
 Both are expressed together as an
 Unit of ρAC2 = (kg/m3)(m2)(m/s)2 =
important gas dynamic parameter
kg.m/s2 = mass x acceleration = Force
as the ‘wall force function’ or the
in Newton. (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2).
impulse function (F).
 Both has unit of ‘Force”.
 One-dimensional flow through a control surface is shown.
 The thrust or wall force experienced by the duct is a result of change in pressure
and Mach number between the cross sections 1 and 2.
 By momentum equation, the thrust 𝜏
( ) is given by

¿ ….Eqn. A
 F*=p*A*(1+γ)
2
2 𝑝 2 𝐶 2 𝜏= 𝐹 2 − 𝐹 1
For a perfect gas, 𝜌 𝐶 = 𝐶 =𝛾 𝑝 =𝛾 𝑝 𝑀 ….Eqn. 1
𝑅𝑇 𝛾 𝑅𝑇
The impulse function is F = pA + ρAC2 ….Eqn. 2  Thrust developed is
equal to change in
Eqn. 1 and Eqn. 2 give impulse function.

F = pA + AγpM2 = pA(1+γM2) ….Eqn. 3

𝜏=
Substituting Eqn. 3 in Eqn. A yields,𝑝 2 𝐴 2 ( 1+𝛾 𝑀 2
2 ) − 𝑝 1 𝐴 1 ( 1+𝛾 𝑀 1)
2
...Eqn. B

Eqn. B demonstrates that the use of impulse function is very convenient in

obtaining the thrust exerted by the flowing fluid.
 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGENT NOZZLE

 Convergent nozzles are used for subsonic and sonic flows.

 Used as flow measuring and flow regulating devices.
 CD nozzles are used for supersonic flows.
 Back Pressure, p b: The flow in a nozzle is caused by a variation
in pressure between two points.
 Here, the pressure at the exit is referred to as the back-pressure, and
the pressure at the entry is the stagnation pressure.
 The ratio between them is the back-pressure ratio, which can be used to control
flow velocity.

C=0

Exhaust chamber
 Fig. shows the flow from an infinite reservoir to an
exhaust chamber through a convergent nozzle.
 Stagnation conditions in the reservoir are kept
constant while the back pressure, i.e., the exhaust
chamber pressure can be varied.
 The pressure distribution along the nozzle for various

values of the pressure ratio, pe/p0, across the nozzle

are shown in curves as 1,2,3,4 and 5.

 Curves 1 and 2 correspond to the values of the pressure

ratio more than the critical.
 Curve 3 corresponds to the critical pressure ratio, p e/p0 =

0.528(for γ=1.4).
 For curves 1, 2 and 3, pe= pb.

 The nozzle exit pressure, pe does not decrease when the

exhaust chamber pressure, pb is further reduced below the

critical value, as shown by curves 4 and 5.
 Curves 1 and 2 correspond to the values of
the pressure ratio more than the critical.
 Curve 3 corresponds to the critical pressure

ratio, pe/p0 = 0.528(for γ=1.4).

 The maximum mass flow occurs at point 3
after which both the mass flow parameter and
the nozzle pressure ratio cease to vary.
 A back pressure lower than the critical
pressure cannot be sensed in the nozzle
upstream flow and does not affect the flow
rate.
ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH CONVERGENT DIVERGENT NOZZLE

 Maximum Mach number

attainable in a converging
nozzle is unity.
 For supersonic Mach numbers, a
diverging section after the throat
is required.
 The Mach number at the exit of
the converging-diverging nozzle
depends upon the back pressure
(exhaust chamber pressure).
 Fig. shows the flow from an
infinite reservoir through a CD

Normal Shock nozzle to an exhaust chamber.

 The static pressure distributions
for various values of the
pressure ratio pb/p0 are shown in
curves a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i and
j.
 In ‘a’ and ‘b’, the pressure ratio pe/p0

across the nozzle is such that the

flow is accelerating only up to the
throat.
 In ‘a’ and ‘b’, the diverging part acts
as a diffuser through which the
pressure rises to the back pressure,
pb.
 In ‘c’, the critical conditions are

reached at the throat(pt=p*; Mt=1)

but the back pressure is such that
the diverging part still acts as a
diffuser.
 Perfect nozzle
Design curve
m is maximum

 When the nozzle is operated under off-

 Curve ‘h’ corresponds to the design
design value of the back
value of the back pressure.
pressure(curves ‘d’ & ‘e’) there is a
 Flow is supersonic in the entire discontinuity in the flow in the supersonic

divergent part of the nozzle. velocity and there is a steep rise in static
pressure, i.e., normal shock occurs in
 Flow is isentropic in curves a, b, c, h, i
the divergent part of the nozzle.
and j.
  The pressure, temperature and
density suddenly rises and velocity
drops from supersonic to subsonic
through a plane of discontinuity
(wavy plane).
 This plane of discontinuity is called
a shock wave.
 Flow through shock wave is no
longer isentropic.
 Flow is irreversible in shock.

 Off-design curves – a,b,c – venturi – pressure ratio higher than design pressure ratio.
 Design curve – h – nozzle operated at design pressure ratio.
 Off-design curves – d, e – pressure ratio lower than design pressure ratio – shock curves.
 Off-design curves – f,g, i, j – pressure ratio lower than design pressure ratio.
‘h’
‘d’ ‘e’.
‘i’ ‘j’