Categorical Proposition

Chapter-Six
 Chapter Objectives:

Having studied this lesson, you will be able to:

• Define what a categorical proposition is
• Explain the four standard categorical Propositions
• Explain the attributes of a categorical proposition
in terms of quality and quantity
• Understand the immediate inferences based on
the rules of conversion, obversion and
contraposition
• Describe the logical oppositions between the four
propositions based on their square of relations.
• For Aristotle, reality is organized in categories
or classes. Such classes have members and
Aristotle thought knowledge of reality
consisted of true propositions(assertions)
about these categories and their members.
Such a proposition would be, for example, “All
human beings are mortal.”
 Meaning of Categorical Proposition
• Category or categorical, refers to set of things, such as, animals,
plants, workers, students and so on. In a categorical proposition,
these and other set of things appears in the subject and predicate
part of a proposition. The term
• Proposition refers to the information content or meaning of a
statement. However, to avoid inconvenience, we can use the
terms statement and proposition interchangeably for this purpose.
• Categorical propositions are in general simple, easy or plain
statements that relate two classes of things based on the rule of
exclusion or inclusion principles. Examples:
 Every human being is mortal.
Nothing that is a human which is eternal.
There exists a fish that is a shark.
There are plants which are not edible.
• All the above statements are categorical propositions.
This is due to the fact that in each statement two sets
of things are related either in the form of inclusion or
exclusion.
• In the first example, two set of things are given: human
being (which is the subject of the statement) and
mortal (the predicate of the statement). And we see
that these two classes (human beings and mortal
beings) are related based on inclusion relation, that is,
without exception all human beings are included part
of in the class of mortal beings. This proposition is
contrary to the second proposition, because it says that
human beings are not belonged (not included) in to the
class of eternal beings. This is to say that human beings
In all the above cases, there are certain difficulties. The amount of the set
of things is not clearly stated based on fixed quantifiers. It is very difficult to
determine the type of relation of the two classes in the form of inclusion or
exclusion. It is ambiguous to decide the attribute (nature) of statements
either negatively or positively and to determine their logical relation with
other statements. These and other related problems urge us to study
categorical propositions based on fixed logical standard-forms. Since any
categorical proposition asserts that either all or part of the class denoted
by the subject term is included in or excluded from the class denoted by
the predicate term, it follows that there are exactly four types of
categorical propositions:
1. Those that assert that the whole subject class is included in the
predicate class
2. Those that assert that part of the subject class is included in the
predicate class
3. Those that assert that the whole subject class is excluded from the
predicate class
4. Those that assert that part of the subject class is excluded from the
 Standard-Forms of Categorical Proposition
• To determine the validity and invalidity of the
immediate inferences of categorical statements and to
identify the formal fallacies committed in invalid
arguments based on the criteria of logical rules,
categorical propositions should be stated in standard
form. A categorical proposition that expresses these
relations with complete clarity is called a standard-
form categorical proposition.
• The standard form of categorical propositions is
designed in accordance with the rules of the partial
or whole inclusion and exclusion of the two classes
stated in the subject and predicate of the
The whole subject class is included in the predicate
class.( the principle of total inclusion).
Example:
All men are mortal.
All birds are feathery.
All mammals are animals.
The whole subject class is excluded from the
predicate class. (the principle of total exclusion).
Example:
No men are eternal.
No Muslims are Christians.
No blacks are white.
Partially the subject class is included in the
predicate class.(the principle of partial inclusion).
Example:
Some birds are mammals.
Some politicians are liars.
Some students are lazy.
 Partially the subject class is excluded from the predicate
class.(the principle of partial exclusion).
Example:
Some snakes are not poisonous.
Some plants are not edible.
Some Ethiopians are not friendly.
 The Components of Categorical Propositions
• A proposition or statement is a sentence that is either true or false. This
being the case, categorical proposition is defined as a proposition that relates
two classes, or categories-the subject term and the predicate term.
• The proposition asserts that either all or part of the class denoted by the
subject term is included in or excluded from the class denoted by the
predicate term. Accordingly, we have four propositions and each of these
propositions has quantifier, subject term, sentential connective and
predicate term. These are, in general, known as the components of a
categorical proposition. Study the following points.
 Quantifier-’All‘, ‘No‘ and ‘Some‘ indicate the quantity or amount of the
subject class.
 Subject term-any term (word) or phrase that consists of set of things.
 Copula -’Are’ and are ‘not‘. The Latin copula is a sentential connective that
relates the subject and predicate terms.
 Predicate term-A term consisting set of things, which has some kind of
relation with the subject term.
• The four components of standard forms can,
otherwise, be summarized as follow:
1. Those that assert that the whole subject class is
included in the predicate class
2. Those that assert that part of the subject class is
included in the predicate class,
3. Those that assert that the whole subject class is
excluded from the predicate class,
4. Those that assert that part of the subject class is
excluded from the predicate class. The following is,
therefore, the correct order of the standard form of a
categorical proposition.
Quantifier + subject term + copula + predicate term.
 Consider the following example
Eg. All members of the Ethiopian Medical Association are people holding
degrees from recognized academic institutions.

This standard-form categorical proposition is analyzed as follows:

• Quantifier: all
• Subject term: members of the Ethiopian Medical Association
• Copula: are
• Predicate term: people holding degrees from recognized academic institutions
• A categorical proposition is in standard form if and only if it is a substitution
instance of one of the following four forms & categorical propositions could be
stated in standard form symbolically-as follows:
a. All S are P = All members of S is in P class.
b. No S are P = No members of S is in P class.
c. Some S are P = At least one member of S is in P class.
d. Some S are not P = At least one member of S is not in P class

 In logic, the quantifier ―some‖ always mean ―at least one‖.

 Attributes of Categorical Propositions: Quality,
Quantity, and Distribution
I. Quality: refers to those set of things stated in the subject
term that are included or excluded from those set of
things stated in the predicate term. If the subject term
refers to those classes of things, which are included
(partially/entirely) in the predicate term, the proposition
is said to be affirmative, while if the subject term refers
to those classes of things that are excluded
(partially/entirely) the proposition is said to be
negative. Study the following table.
Standard Form Quality
All S are P Affirmative
No S are P Negative
Some S are P Affirmative
Some S are not P Negative
II. Quantity: The quantity of a categorical proposition is determined by the
amount or quantity of those set of things stated in the subject term.
Accordingly, if the subject term refers entirely, the quantity of the
proposition is said to be universal, whereas, if the amount of the subject
class is stated partially, the quantity of the proposition is said to be
particular. Study the
Standard following table.
Forms Quantity
All S are P Universal
No S are P Universal
Some S are P Particular
Some S are not P Particular

• According to the quality and quantity of categorical propositions, logicians

devised letter names of the four propositions to help us:
A. Save time and space
B. Recapitulate the standard forms easily
C. Apply various logical rules and study immediate inferences easily
• Accordingly, the four letter names: A, E, I and
O are devised to represent the four standard
forms of categorical propositions and it is
summarized as follows.
Standard Form Letter Name
All S are P A
No S are P E
Some S are P I
Some S are P O
• Distribution: The concept of distribution emphasizes the
terms (the subject & predicate terms) and not the
proposition as such. If a term refers unambiguously the
set of things stated in it entirely the term is said to be
distributed. It implies that attribute of the class is
distributed to each & every member of the class and we
know clearly that the attribute is shared similarly by every
member of the class. If a term does not state the class of
things in this way, the term is said to be undistributed.
Study the following table:
Standard Form A Term A Term
Distributed Undistributed
All S are P S P
No S are P S and P None
Some S are P None S and P
Some S are not P P S
 Summary of the Above Discussion
Letter Name Standard Form Quality Quantity Distribution
A All S are P Affirmative Universal S
E No S are P Negative Universal S&P
I Some S are P Affirmative Particular None
O Some S are not P Negative Particular P
• How to determine the quality, quantity &
distribution? Study the following example.
In a proposition: Some birds are mammals:-
Its Letter name is I
Its Standard form is Some S are P
Its quality is Affirmative
Its quantity is Particular
A term, which is distributed, is none of the
two terms.
A term, which is undistributed, is both terms
(birds and mammals) are not distributed
 Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of
Opposition
 Representing Categorical Propositions in Diagrams
• The standard forms of categorical statements can be
represented in diagrams.
• Developed by John Venn, venn diagram is an arrangement
of overlapping circles in which each circle represents the
class denoted by a term in a categorical proposition.
• Because every categorical proposition has exactly two
terms, the Venn diagram for a single categorical proposition
consists of two overlapping circles. Each circle is labeled so
that it represents one of the terms in the proposition.
Unless otherwise required, we adopt convention that the
left-hand circle represents the subject term, and the right-
hand circle of the predicate term. In such a diagram:
• The two categories (set of things) stated in the
subject and predicate terms are represented by
two overlapping circles.
• The shading part of the diagram depicts that
there no member of the class exists; that is it is
null or empty.
• The “*” or simply “X” shows that there is at least
one member of the class exists.
Squares of Opposition: Traditional and
Modern Squares of Opposition