Ceramics and

composites
-Dr. P. Anbarasi
Assistant Professor
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore
 Chapter – 3
Introduction to composites

• Classification – PMC, CMC, MMC – properties &

applications
• Carbon-carbon composites, hybrid composites.
• Fiber composites: constituents – functions of fiber
and matrix – properties of fibers – critical fiber length-
aligned and random fiber composites.
• Property prediction – rule of mixtures – problems.
• Production of fibers – metallic, polymer and ceramic
matrix materials – concept of interfaces and
interfacial reactions in fiber composites.
Composites
• Composite – any multiphase material that exhibits a
significant proportion of the properties of both
constituent phases such that a better combination of
properties is realized.
• Examples:
• Pearlitic steels – alternating layers of α-ferrite and
cementite. Ferrite phase – soft and ductile, cementite
phase – hard and brittle. Combined characteristics –
high ductility and strength – superior to those of
constituent phases.
• Wood – strong and flexible cellulose fibers surrounded
and held together by a stiffer material called lignin.
• Bone – composite of strong yet soft protein collagen
and the hard, brittle mineral apatite.
• Many composite materials are composed of just two
phases: matrix, which is continuous and surrounds
the other phase, often called the dispersed phase.
• The properties of composites are a function of the
properties of the constituent phases, their relative
amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase
(shape, particle size, geometry and distribution).
• Based on the type of matrix, composites are classified
into (i) polymer matrix composite,(ii) ceramic matrix
composite, and (iii) metal matrix composite.
• Based on the type of reinforcement, composites are
classified into (i) particle reinforced composite, (ii)
fiber-reinforced composite, and (iii) structural
composite
Polymer Matrix Composites
• Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) consists of a polymer resin as the
matrix, with fibers as the reinforcement medium.
• Glass, carbon and the aramids –most common fiber reinforcements
• Other fiber materials – boron, silicon carbide and aluminium oxide.
• Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites – fiberglass –
automotive, marine bodies, plastic pipes, storage containers
and industrial floorings.
• Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites – sports and
recreational equipments, pressure vessels, aircraft structural
components.
• Aramid fiber reinforced polymer composites – ballistic products,
sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile cases.
• Boron fiber – military aircraft components, helicopter rotor blades.
• SiC and alumina fibers - tennis rackets, circuit boards, and rocket
nose cones.
• Mechanical properties:
• Most thermoset matrix composites show essentially elastic
behavior right upto fracture (no yield point or plasticity)
• In general, the continuous fiber reinforced composites will be
stiff and strong along the fiber axis, but off-angle these
properties fall rather sharply.
• In a unidirectional PMC, the fiber volume fraction can be 65%.
• In composites having fibres aligned bidirectionally, this value can
fall to 50%
• In a composite containing in-plane random distribution of fibers,
the volume fraction will rarely be more than 30%.
• As a general rule of thumb, we can take the Young’s modulus of
the composite in the longitudinal direction to be given by the
following rule-of-mixtures relationship
Ecl = EfVf + EmVm
Where, E – Young’s modulus, V – Volume fraction of a
component, c - composite, f – fiber, m – matrix and l –
longitudinal direction
• Damping characteristics:
• In a composite, damping will depend on:
(i) relative proportion of fiber and matrix,
(ii) orientation of reinforcement with respect to the
axis of loading,
(iii) viscoelastic characteristics of the matrix and the
reinforcement,
(iv) any slipping at the interface between the matrix
and the reinforcement,
(v) and any source of damage such as cracks or
environmental attack.
• Moisture effects:
• Environmental moisture can penetrate organic
materials by diffusion.
• Moisture works as a plasticizer for a polymer, i.e.,
properties such as stiffness, strength, and glass
transition temperature decrease with the ingress of
moisture in a polymer.
• Two fundamental effects must be taken into account
when designing components made of PMCs, namely,
temperature and humidity.
• Hygrothermal effects – results in considerable
degradation in the mechanical characteristics of the
PMCs
• Applications:
• Pressure vessels:
• A very important application – natural gas for
transportation.
• The use of compressed natural gas as a vehicle fuel
requires on-board storage of gas at high pressure(~ 200
kPa).
• Steel cylinders were used as pressure vessels – heavy-
reduced payload.
• Much lighter, filament – wound PMC cylinders were
developed to replace the steel cylinders.
• Examples – steel or aluminium cylinders hoop-wrapped
with glass fiber/polyester and hoop-and polar-wound glass
or carbon fiber reinforced polymer cylinders with a
thermoplastic liner.
• Other common applications – pipes for transportation of
• Ballistic protection:
• Woven fabrics made of fibers that can deform under
impact – modern ballistic protection system.
• Fabrics are commonly used in layers to make what is
called concealable body armor, which are used for
protection against low-and medium-energy handgun
rounds.
• Ballistic fabrics are made of aramid fiber (Kevlar or
Twaron) or polyethylene (Spectra or Dyneema).
• Concealable body armor is constructed of multiple
layers of ballistic fabric, assembled into the ballistic
panel.
• The ballistic panel is then inserted into the carrier,
which is constructed of conventional garment fabrics
such as nylon or cotton
• Aerospace:
• Boeing 787 – major structural components such as
fuselage, wings, floor beams, etc. made of composite
materials.
• Most of the larger components – carbon fiber
reinforced epoxy.
• Smaller parts made of short fibers in a variety of
matrix materials, including thermoplastic matrix
materials.
Metal Matrix Composites
• Matrix – ductile metal. The superalloys, as well as alloys of Al, Mg, Ti
and Cu – Matrix materials
• Reinforcement – may be in the form of particulates, both continuous
(C, SiC, B, Alumina and refractory metals) and discontinuous fibers
(chopped fibers of alumina and carbon, particulates of SiC and
Alumina), and whiskers (SiC).
• Concentration ranges between 10 – 60 vol%.
• Improves stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep
resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional stability.
• Advantages – higher operating temperature, nonflammability and
greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids.
• An easy way of strengthening metals by impeding dislocation motion –
introducing heterogeneities such as solute atoms or precipitates or hard
particles in a ductile matrix.
• Solid solution hardening – introducing solute atoms (C, N or Mn in Fe).
• Interstitial solutes (C, N) are much more efficient strengthening agents
than substitutional solutes (Mn, Si).
• This is because the interstitials cause a tetragonal distortion in the
lattice and thus interacts with both screw and edge dislocations, while
the substitutional atoms cause a spherical distortion that interacts only
with edge dislocations.
• Precipitation hardening – decomposing a supersaturated solid solution
to form a finely distributed second phase. Examples: Al-Cu and Al-Zn-
Mg alloys (Aircraft industry).
• Oxide dispersion strengthening – artificially dispersing rather small
volume fractions (0.5-3 vol%) of strong and inert oxide particles
(Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in a ductile matrix by internal oxidation or
powder metallurgy blending techniques.
• Both the second –phase precipitates and dispersoids act as barriers to
dislocation motion in the ductile matrix, thus making the matrix more
deformation resistant.
• Dispersion hardened systems (e.g., Al + Al2O3) show high strength at
elevated temperatures, while precipitates (CuAl2 in Aluminium) tend
to dissolve.
• Incorporating high-modulus fibers or particles in a metal matrix –
stiffness improves.
• Most of these high modulus reinforcements are also lighter than the
metallic matrix materials (except tungsten).
• Some matrix-reinforcement combinations are highly reactive
at elevated temperatures.
• Composite degradation may be caused by high temperature
processing, or by subjecting the MMC to elevated
temperatures during service.
• It is resolved either by applying a protective surface coating
to the reinforcement or by modifying the matrix alloy
composition.
• Processing of MMCs involves two steps: consolidation or
synthesis (introduction of reinforcement into the matrix),
followed by shaping (forging, extrusion, rolling).
• Properties of MMC:
• Modulus: unidirectionally reinforced continuous fiber reinforced MMC show a
linear increase in the longitudinal Young’s modulus of the composite as a
function of the fiber volume fraction – in agreement with rule-of-mixtures
value.
• Modulus increase in a direction transverse to the fibers is very low.
• Particle reinforcement also results in the modulus of the composite; but less
than that predicted by the rule-of-mixtures.
• Strength: prediction of strength in MMC – more complicated than
modulus prediction due to direct and indirect strengthening.
• Direct strengthening – contribution of fiber and metal matrix
• If the fiber strength is same as that determined in an isolated test of
the fiber (ceramic fibers)
• Indirect strengthening – strength contribution from any
microstructural changes in the metal matrix.
• Matrix strength in the composite will not be the same as that
determined from a test of an unreinforced metallic sample in
isolation.
• Metal matrix can suffer several microstructural alterations during
processing and, consequently, changes in its mechanical properties.
• Effect of thermal stresses:
• In general, ceramic reinforcements have a coefficient of thermal expansion smaller
than that of most metallic matrices, thermal stresses will be generated in both the
fiber and the matrix.
• The following events can take place in response to the thermal stresses:
(i) plastic deformation of the ductile metal matrix (slip, twinning,
cavitation, grain boundary sliding, and/or migration) – can result in an
increased dislocation density in the metal matrix.
(ii) cracking and failure of the brittle fiber
(iii) An adverse reaction at the interface – affects the strength depending
on the nature and extent of the reaction product
(iv) Failure of the fiber/matrix interface – In SiC/Mg(AZ19C) system, a Mg-
rich interfacial layer acted as the fracture-initiating site.
• The overall thermal expansion characteristics of a composite can be controlled by
controlling the proportion of reinforcement and matrix and the distribution of
Applications:
• Automobile - Engine components – alumina alloy matrix reinforced with
alumina and carbon fibers – light in weight, resists wear and thermal distortion.
• Diesel piston crown – short fibers of alumina or alumina + silica in the crown of
the piston – lighter, more abrasion resistant and cheaper product.
• Cylinder liners – carbon fibers and alumina fibers in an aluminium alloy matrix.
• Aerospace structural applications – advanced aluminium alloy metal-matrix
composites; boron fibers – reinforcement for space shuttler orbiter, continuous
graphite fibers – Hubble telescope.
• High temperature creep and rupture properties of some of the superalloys (Ni-
and Co-based alloys) may be enhanced by fiber reinforcement using refractory
metals such as tungsten.
• Excellent high-temperature oxidation resistance and impact strength are also
maintained.
• Designs incorporating these composites permit higher operating temperatures
and better efficiencies for turbine engines.
• Continuous alumina fiber (Nextel 610)- reinforced Al composites – power transmission
cables.
• The cable consists of a composite core, consisting of Al2O3/Al composite wrapped with
Al-Zr wires.
• The composite core bears most of the load as it has much higher stiffness and strength.
• Particulate metal matrix composites, especially with light metal matrix composites such
as aluminium and magnesium - automotive and sporting goods.
• Example – mountain bicycles – frames made from extruded tubes of 6061 aluminium
containing about 10% alumina particles – high stiffness.
• Electronic - grade MMCs – MMCs can be tailored to have optimal thermal and physical
properties to meet the requirements of electronic packaging systems.
• Unidirectionally aligned, pitch-based carbon fibers in an aluminium matrix can have
very high thermal conductivity along the fiber direction – heat transfer applications
where weight reduction is an important consideration.
• Example – In high-density, high-speed integrated-circuit packages for computers and in
base plates for electronic equipment.
Ceramic Matrix Composites
• Ceramic materials – very hard and brittle, have strong
covalent and ionic bonds and very few slip systems
compared to metals – low failure strains and low toughness
or fracture energies.
• Ceramics have very high elastic moduli, low densities, and
can withstand very high temperatures.
• Ceramics lack uniformity in properties, have low thermal and
mechanical shock resistance, and have low tensile strength.
• Major disadvantage of ceramics – extreme brittleness.
• Toughening ceramics – fiber reinforcement – high
temperature strength and environmental resistance of
ceramic materials without risking a catastrophic failure.
• The general philosophy in nonceramic matrix composite – fiber bears a
greater proportion of the applied load.
• This load partitioning depends on the ratio of fiber and matrix elastic moduli,
Ef/Em .
• In nonceramic matrix composites, this ratio can be very high, while in CMCs,
it is rather low and can be as low as unity.
• Due to limited ductility of the matrix and high fabrication temperature,
thermal mismatch between components affects the performance of
composite.
• Common ceramic matrix materials:
• SiC – excellent high temperature resistance – but brittle upto very high
temperatures and in all environments.
• Silicon nitride, alumina, mullite
• Silica-based glasses and glass-ceramics.
• Properties of CMCs:
• Matrix microcracking – Ef/Em ratio determines the extent of matrix
microcracking.
• The strain-to-fracture value of a ceramic matrix is very low (< 0.05%
for most ceramic materials).
• The situation in regard to fiber and/or matrix failure is shown below:

•In the case of MMCs

and PMCs, fibers fail
first at various weak
Crack free points distributed
original along their lengths.
situation
•The final failure of the
composite will occur
along a section that
has the most fiber
fractures.
• In a strongly bonded CMC, fiber and matrix would fail simultaneously
at matrix failure strain (Fig.c).
• In a weakly bonded CMC, the matrix will start cracking first and the
fibers will be bridging the matrix blocks (Fig.d).
• From a toughness point of view, too strong a bond is not desirable in a
CMC, because it would make a crack run through the specimen. A
weak interface however would lead to fiber-bridging of matrix
microcracks.
• Fiber aspect ratio, fiber orientation, relative strengths and
moduli of fiber and matrix, thermal expansion mismatch,
matrix porosity and fiber flaws – important variables that
control the performance of CMCs.
• Ceramic matrix materials containing short, randomly
distributed carbon fibers exhibited weakening effect rather
than a strengthening effect.
• This was attributed to the stress concentration effect at the
extremities of randomly distributed short fibers and thermal
expansion mismatch.
• In aligned continuous fibers, the stress concentration at fiber
ends is minimized and higher fiber volume fractions can be
obtained.
• Toughness:
• Matrix microcracking, fiber/matrix debonding leading to crack
deflection and fiber pullout, and phase transformation toughening –
energy dissipating processes that can result in an increase in
toughness.
• Fiber bridging: If processing results in large flaws in the matrix, the
composite fracture strain will be low. In this respect, fiber bridging of
cracks in a CMC will result in a reduced flaw size in the matrix.
• A high volume fraction and a small fiber diameter provides sufficient
number of fibers for crack bridging and postponing crack propagation
to higher strain levels.
• This, in turn, will help achieve higher applied strains before crack
propagation in the matrix than in an unreinforced, monolithic
ceramic.
• Crack deflection – as a matrix crack reaches the interface, it gets
deflected along the interface rather than passing straight through the
fiber.
• A weak interfacial bond leads to crack deflection at the fiber/matrix
interface and/or fiber pullout.
• Fiber pullout – the interface must fail in shear. When a composite is
loaded, a crack initiates in the matrix and starts propagating in the matrix
normal to the interface. If the fiber/matrix interface is weak, then
interfacial shear and lateral contraction of fiber and matrix will result in
fiber/matrix debonding and crack deflection away from its principal
direction (normal to the interface).
• A further increment of crack extension in the principal direction will occur
after some delay.
• On continuing stressing of the composite, the fiber/matrix interface
delamination continues and fiber failure will occur at some weak point
along its length.
• This is followed by broken fiber ends being pulled out against the frictional
resistance of the interface and finally causing a total separation.
• An interesting technique to obtain enhanced toughness in
CMCs involves coatings that undergo phase
transformation involving volume change (Transformation
toughening)
• Small particles of partially stabilized zirconia are dispersed
within the matrix material, often Al2O3 or ZrO2 itself.
• Typically, CaO, MgO, Y2O3 and CeO are used as stabilizers.
• Partial stabilization allows retention of the metastable
tetragonal phase at ambient conditions rather than the
stable monoclinic phase.
• The stress field in front of a propagating crack causes
these metastably retained tetragonal particles to undergo
transformation to the stable monoclinic phase.
• Accompanying this transformation is a slight particle
volume increase, and the net result is that compressive
stresses are established on the crack surfaces near the
crack tip that tend to pinch the crack shut, thereby
arresting its growth.
• Applications of CMCs:
• SiC whisker-reinforced aluminas are used as cutting tool
inserts for machining hard metal alloys.
• CMCs can lead to improvements in aerospace vehicles
including aircrafts, helicopters, missiles and reentry vehicles.
• Candle-type filters consisting of NextelTM 312 ceramic fibers
in a silicon carbide matrix can be used to remove particulate
matter from high-temperature gas streams up to 1,000 °C.
• CMCs can find applications in heat engines, components
requiring resistance to aggressive environments, special
electronic/electrical applications, energy conversion, and
military systems.
Carbon-Carbon composites
• Carbon fibers embedded in a carbonaceous matrix. Carbon fibers can be
continuous or short.
• Desirable properties include high-tensile moduli and tensile strengths
that are retained to temperatures in excess of 2000 °C, resistance to
creep, and relatively large fracture toughness values.
• Carbon-carbon composites have low coefficients of thermal expansion
and relatively high thermal conductivities; these characteristics coupled
with high strengths, give rise to a relatively low susceptibility to thermal
shock.
• Major drawback – propensity to high-temperature oxidation.
• A carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix composite is taken and the
polymer matrix is converted to carbon by pyrolysis or carbon is deposited
from gaseous reactants into interstices of a woven carbon fiber preform.
• The process can take days, making the final product very expensive.
• Properties of Carbon/Carbon composites:
• Properties of carbon/carbon composites depend on the type of carbon fiber used, fiber
volume fraction, fiber distribution and the amount of porosity.
• Thermal properties:
• Carbon/carbon composites can have high thermal conductivity, especially if mesophase
pitch-based carbon fibers which have highly oriented carbon fibers with a graphitic structure
are used.
• Frictional properties:
• Carbon/carbon composites have good tribological properties, in addition to adequate
strength, good toughness and high thermal conductivity.
• Ablative properties:
• Space vehicles, on reentry into the atmosphere, are subjected to intense aerothermal loads
(external surface pressure, skin friction, and aerodynamic heating).
• Intense heating occurs which leads to extremely high temperatures.
• We use thermal protection systems (TPS) made of suitable materials in order to keep space
vehicle and occupants and equipments safe.
• Ablative TPS is commonly used because it is quite effective in expending thermal energy.
• Applications of Carbon/Carbon composites:
• Major applications – uses at high temperatures, e.g., heat shields for
re-entry vehicles, aircraft brakes, hot-pressing dies, and high
temperature parts such as nozzles.
• Other applications – implants and internal repair of bone fractures
because of their excellent biocompatibility.
• Fiber reinforced composites:
• Dispersed phase – in the form of fiber.
• The Fiber phase:
• A small diameter fiber is much stronger than the bulk material.
• The probability of the presence of a critical surface flaw that can lead
to fracture diminishes with decreasing specimen volume.
• On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into
whiskers, fibers and wires.
• Whiskers – very thin single crystals that have extremely large length-
to-diameter ratios. As a consequence of their small size, they have a
high degree of crystalline perfection and virtually flaw free, which
accounts for their exceptionally high strengths.
• Whisker materials include graphite, SiC, Si3N4, Al2O3.
• Drawbacks: Expensive, difficult to incorporate whiskers into matrix.
• Fibers:
• They are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small
diameters.
• Generally either polymers or ceramics.
• Examples: the polymer aramids, glass, carbon, boron, Al2O3
and SiC.
• Wires:
• Fine wires have relatively large diameters.
• Typical materials include steel, molybdenum and tungsten.
• Wires are utilized as a radial steel reinforcement in
automobile tires, in filament-wound rocket casings, and in
wire-wound high-pressure hoses.
• The Matrix phase:
• Matrix phase may be a metal, polymer or ceramic.
• In general, metals and polymers are used as matrix materials
because some ductility is desirable.
• For fiber reinforced composites, matrix serves several functions:
• (i) It binds the fibers together and acts as the medium by which
an externally applied stress is transmitted and distributed to the
fibers. Only a very small proportion of an applied load is
sustained by the matrix phase.
• (ii) To protect the individual fibers from surface damage as a
result of mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with the
environment. Such interactions may produce surface flaws
capable of forming cracks, which may lead to failure at low
tensile stress levels
• (iii) Finally, the matrix separates the fibers and, by virtue of its
relative softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of
brittle cracks from fiber to fiber, which could result in
catastrophic failure.
• Even though some of the individual fibers fail, total composite
fracture will not occur until large numbers of adjacent fibers,
once having failed, form a cluster of critical size.
• It is essential that adhesive bonding forces between fiber and
matrix be high to minimize fiber pull-out.
• The ultimate strength of the composite depends to a large
degree on the magnitude of this bond.
• Adequate bonding is essential to maximize the stress
transmittance from the weak matrix to the strong fibers.
• Influence of fiber length:
• The mechanical characteristics of a fiber reinforced composite depend not only
on the properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is
transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.
• The extent of this load transmittance depends on the magnitude of the interfacial
bond between the fiber and matrix phases.
• Under an applied stress, this fiber-matrix bond ceases at the fiber ends, i.e., there
is no load transmittance from the matrix at each fiber extremity, yielding a matrix
deformation pattern shown below.
• Critical fiber length (lc):
• Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective
strengthening and stiffening of the composite
material.
• This critical length is dependent on the fiber diameter
d and its ultimate tensile strength σ*f, and on the
fiber-matrix bond strength τc according to
lc = σ*f d/2τc
• For a number of glass and carbon fiber-matrix
combinations, this critical length is on the order of
1mm, which ranges between 20 and 150 times the
• When a stress equal to σ*f is applied to a fiber having just this critical
length (l = lc), maximum fiber load is achieved only at the axial center of the
fiber.
• As fiber length increases, (l > lc), the fiber reinforcement becomes more
effective.
• Fibers for which l >> lc (normally l > 15 lc) are termed continuous.

• Discontinuous or short fibers have lengths shorter than this.

• For discontinuous fibers of lengths significantly less than lc , the matrix
deforms around the fiber such that there is virtually no stress transference
• Discontinuous and aligned fiber
composites:
• Even though reinforcement efficiency is
lower for discontinuous than for continuous
fibers, discontinuous and aligned fiber
composites are becoming increasingly more
important commercially.
• Chopped glass fibers are used more
extensively. Carbon and aramid
discontinuous fibers are also employed.
• These short fiber composites can be
produced having 90% moduli of elasticity
and 50% tensile strength of their
continuous fiber counterparts.
• For a discontinuous and aligned fiber composite having a uniform distribution
of fibers and in which l > lc , the longitudinal strength (σ*cd) is given by the
relationship

• Where, σ’f – fracture strength of the fiber and σ’m – stress in the matrix when
the composite fails.
• If the fiber length is less than critical (l < lc ), then the longitudinal strength
(σ*cd) is given by

• Where, d – fiber diameter and τc is the smaller of either the fiber-matrix bond
strength or the matrix shear yield strength.
• Discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber composites:
• Normally, when the fiber orientation is random, short and
discontinuous fibers are used.
• Under these circumstances, a ‘rule-of-mixtures’ expression for the
elastic modulus may be utilized, as follows:

• K – fiber efficiency parameter (0.1 to 0.6), which depends on Vf and

Ef/Em ratio.
• Thus, for random fiber reinforcement, the modulus increases in
some proportion of the volume fraction of fiber.
• Applications involving totally multidirectional applied stresses
normally use discontinuous fibers, which are randomly oriented in
the matrix material.
• Production rates for short – fiber composites (both aligned and
randomly oriented) are rapid, and intricate shapes can be formed
that are not possible with continuous fiber reinforcement.
• Fabrication cost is also low.
Production of fibers
• Fiber spinning – process of extruding a liquid through small holes in a spinneret
to form solid filaments.
• Important fiber spinning techniques:
• (i) wet spinning – A solution is extruded into a coagulating bath. The jets of
liquid freeze or harden in the coagulating bath as a result of chemical or
physical changes.
• (ii) Dry spinning – A solution consisting of a fiber forming material and a solvent
is extruded through a spinneret. A stream of hot air impinges on the jets of
solution emerging from the spinneret, the solvent evaporates, and solid
filaments are left behind.
• (iii) Melt spinning – The fiber-forming material is heated above its melting point
and the molten material is extruded through a spinneret. The liquid jets harden
into solid filaments in air on emerging from the spinneret holes.
• (iv) Dry jet-wet spinning – A special process for spinning aramid fibers. An
appropriate polymer liquid crystal solution is extruded through spinneret holes,
passes through an air gap before entering a coagulation bath, and then goes on
• Production of glass and ceramic fibers:
• Conventional method of making glass or ceramic fiber – drawing
from high-temperature melts of appropriate compositions.
• Practical difficulties – high processing temperature, immiscibility
of components in liquid state, easy crystallization during cooling.
• Sol-gel technique:
• An important technique for preparing glass and ceramic fibers.
• Sol – colloidal suspension in which the individual particles are so
small (nm range) that they show no sedimentation.
• Gel – suspension in which the liquid medium has become viscous
enough to behave more or less like a solid.
• The sol-gel method using metal alkoxides consists of
• (i) preparing an appropriate homogeneous solution,
Continuous glass fibers cut from a
• (ii) changing the solution to a sol, spool obtained by sol-gel
• (iii) gelling the sol technique.

• (iv) converting the gel to glass fibers by heating.

• Silicon Carbide Fibers by CVD:
• SiC fiber can be made by CVD on a substrate heated to approximately 1300 °C.
• The substrate can be tungsten or carbon.
• The reactive gaseous mixture contains hydrogen and alkyl silanes.
• Typically a gaseous mixture consisting of 70% hydrogen and 30% silanes is introduced at
the reactor top, where the tungsten substrate (~ 13 μm) also enters the reactor.
• Methyltrichlorosilane is an ideal raw material, as it contains one silicon and one carbon
atom.

• Optimum amount of hydrogen is required. If the hydrogen is less than sufficient,

chlorosilanes will not be reduced to Si and free carbon will be present in the mixture. If
too much hydrogen is present, excess Si will form in the end product.
• Mercury seals are used at both ends as contact electrodes for the filament.
• The substrate is heated by combined direct current (250 mA) and very high frequency
(60 MHz) to obtain an optimum temperature profile.
• To obtain a 100-μm SiC monofilament, it generally takes about 20 s in the reactor.
• The filament is wound on a spool at the bottom of the reactor.
• The exhaust gases are passed around a condenser to recover the unused silanes.
• Production of polymer matrix composites:
• Pultrusion:
• In this process, continuous sections of PMCs with fibers oriented axially are produced.
• Continuous fiber tows come from various reels.
• These are passed through a resin bath containing a catalyst.
• After this, the resin-impregnated fibers pass through a series of wipers to remove any excess
polymer and then through a collimator before entering the heated die.

• Stripped excess resin is recirculated to the resin bath.

• The heated die has the shape of the finished component to be produced.
• The resin is cured in the die and the component is pulled out.
• At the end of the line the part is cut by a flying saw to a fixed length.
• The process can produce continuously at a rate of 10-200
cm/min.
• This requires that the fiber distribution be constant and that
the cross-sectional shapes not vary (no bends or tapers).
• The exact speed depends on the resin type and the cross-
sectional thickness of the part being produced.
• Main advantages – low labor cost and product consistency.
• Shapes such as rods, channels, and angle and flat stocks are
easily produced.
• Fibrous reinforcements in different forms can be used.
• Common resins used in pultrusion are polyester, vinyl ester,
and epoxy.
• Production of Metallic Matrix Composites:
• Diffusion bonding:
• Common solid state welding technique used to join similar or dissimilar metals.
• Interdiffusion of atoms from clean metal surfaces in contact at an elevated temperature leads to welding.
• One variant of basic diffusion bonding – foil-fiber-foil process.

• SiC fiber/titanium matrix composite – starting materials were made by sputter coated SiC fibers with titanium.
• Filament winding was used to obtain panels, about 250 μm thick.
• Four such panels were stacked and hot pressed at 900 °C, under a pressure of 105 MPa for 3h.
• Vacuum hot pressing – most important step in diffusion bonding process for metal matrix composite.
• Advantages: ability to process a wide variety of matrix metals, control of fiber orientation and volume fraction.
• Disadvantages: Expensive, high processing time, temperature and pressure. Only objects of limited size can be
produced.
• Production of Ceramic Matrix Composite:
• Slurry infiltration process:
• Important technique used to produce
continuous fiber reinforced glass and glass-
ceramic composites.
• The slurry infiltration process involves two
stages:
• (i) Incorporation of a reinforcing phase into
an unconsolidated matrix.
• (ii) Consolidation of matrix by hot pressing.
• A fiber tow or a fiber preform is
impregnated with matrix-containing slurry
by passing it through a slurry tank. The
impregnated fiber tow or preform sheets are
similar to the prepregs used in PMCs.
• The slurry consists of the matrix powder, a
carrier liquid (water or alcohol), and an
organic binder.
• The organic binder is burned out prior to consolidation.
• Wetting agents may be added to ease the infiltration of the fiber tow or
preform.
• The impregnated tow or prepreg is wound on a drum and dried, followed
by cutting and stacking of the prepregs and consolidation in a hot press.
• Advantages:
• As in PMCs, prepregs can be arranged in a variety of stacking sequences
• Well-suited for glass or glass-ceramic matrix composite.
• Results in a fairly uniform fiber distribution, low porosity and high
strength.
• Disadvantage – restricted to relatively low melting or low softening point
matrix materials.
• Interface – bounding surface between the reinforcement and
matrix, across which a discontinuity (can be sharp or gradual)
in some parameter occurs.
• An interface is the region through which material
parameters, such as concentration of an element, crystal
structure, atomic registry, elastic modulus, density,
coefficient of thermal expansion, etc., change from one side
to another.
• The fiber surface area is essentially the same as the
interfacial area.
• Ignoring the fiber ends, the surface to volume ratio (S/V) of
the fiber can be written as S/V = 2πrl/ πr2l = 2/r, where r and
l are the fiber radius and length of the fiber, respectively.
• Interactions at the interface:
• An initially planar interface, can become an interfacial zone with
multiple interfaces resulting from the formation of different
intermetallic compounds, inter diffusion and so on.
• A composite will rarely be in thermodynamic equilibrium. More
often than not, there will be a driving force for some kind of
interfacial reactions between the two components, leading to a
state of thermodynamic equilibrium for the composite system.
• Data regarding reaction kinetics, diffusivities of one constituent
in another, etc, can provide information about the rate at which
the system would tend to attain the equilibrium state.
• In the absence of thermodynamic and kinetic data, experimental
studies would have to be done to determine the compatibility of
the components.
• The very process of fabrication of a composite can involve interfacial
interactions that can cause changes in the constituent properties
and/or interface structure.
• E.g. If the fabrication process involves cooling from high temperatures
to ambient temperature, the difference in the expansion coefficients
of the two components can give rise to thermal stresses of such a
magnitude that the softer component will deform plastically.
• In powder processing techniques, the nature of the powder surface
will influence the interfacial interactions.
• For example, an oxide film, which is invariably present on the surface
of the powder particles, will affect the chemical nature of the powder.
• Topographic characteristics of the components can also affect the
degree of atomic contact that can be obtained between the
components which can result in geometrical irregularities at the
interface, that can be a source of stress concentrations.