Graph Colouring

Lecture 20: Nov 25

 This Lecture

Graph coloring is another important problem in graph theory.

It also has many applications, including the famous 4-color problem.

• Graph coloring

• Applications

• Planar graphs
 Graph Colouring

Graph Colouring Problem:

Given a graph, colour all the vertices so that
two adjacent vertices get different colours.

Objective: use minimum number of colours.

3-colourable
 Optimal Colouring

Definition. min #colors for G is chromatic number,

(G)

What graphs have chromatic number one?

when there are no edges…

What graphs have chromatic number 2?

What graphs have chromatic number larger than 2?

A path? A cycle? A triangle?

Simple Cycles

 (Ceven ) =2

 (Codd ) =3
Complete Graphs

 (Kn ) =n
 Wheels

W5
 (Wodd ) =4  (Weven ) =3
 Trees

root

Pick any vertex as “root.”

if (unique) path from root is

even length:

odd length:

Can prove more formally using induction.

 2-Colourable Graphs

When exactly is a graph 2-colourable?

This is 2-colourable.

2 colourable: tree, even cycle, etc.

Not 2 colourable: triangle, odd cycle, etc.

 Bipartite Graphs

When exactly is a graph 2-colourable?

Is a bipartite graph 2-colourable?

Is a 2-colourable graph bipartite?

Fact. A graph is 2-colourable if and only if it is bipartite.

 Bipartite Graphs

When exactly is a graph bipartite?

Can a bipartite graph has an odd cycle? NO

If a graph does not have an odd cycle, then it is bipartite?

 Bipartite Graphs

When exactly is a graph bipartite?

No such edge because no 5-cycle

1. The idea is like colouring a
tree.
2. Pick a vertex v, colour it red.
3. Colour all its neighbour
green.
4. Colour all neighbours of
green vertices red
No such edge because no triangle
5. Repeat until all vertices are
coloured.
If a graph does not have an odd cycle, then it is bipartite?

Theorem. A graph is bipartite if and only if it has no odd cycle.

 Chromatic Number

How do we estimate the chromatic number of a graph?

If there is a complete subgraph of size k,

then we need at least k colours? YES

Is the converse true?

If a graph has no complete subgraph of size 4,

then we can colour it using 4 colours? NO

What graphs are 3-colourable?

No one knows a good characterization…

This Lecture

• Graph coloring

• Applications

• Planar graphs
 Flight Gates

flights need gates, but times

overlap.

how many gates needed?

time

122

145

Flights 67

257

306

99
 Conflict Graph

Needs gate at same time

145

• Each vertex represents a flight

306
• Each edge represents a conflict

99
 Graph Colouring

257 122
145

67
306

There is a k-colouring in this graph iff the flights can be scheduled using k gates.

> If there is a schedule, the flights scheduled at the same gate have no conflict,
d so we can colour the graph by using one colour for flights in each gate.

= If there is a graph colouring, then the vertices using each colour have no confli
d so we can schedule the flights having the same colour in one gate.
 Colouring the Vertices

257 122
145

assign
gates:

67
306
257, 67
122,145
4 colors 99
99
4 gates 306
 Better Colouring

257 122
145

67
306

3 colors
99
3 gates
 Final Exams

subjects conflict if student takes both,

so need different time slots.

how short an exam period?

This is a graph colouring problem.

Each vertex is a course, two courses have an edge if there is a conflict.

The graph has a k-colouring if and only if

the exams can be scheduled in k days.
 Graph Colouring

8.02

6.042
18.02
assign
times:

3.091 M 9am

4 time slots M 1pm

(best possible) T 9am
6.001
T 1pm
 Register Allocation

• Given a program, we want to execute it as quick as possible.

• Calculations can be done most quickly if the values are stored in registers.
• But registers are very expensive, and there are only a few in a computer.
• Therefore we need to use the registers efficiently.

This is a graph colouring problem.

 Register Allocation

• Each vertex is a variable.

• Two variables have a conflict if they cannot be put into the same register.

a and b cannot use the same register, because they store different values.
c and d cannot use the same register otherwise the value of c is overwritten.

Each colour corresponds to a register.

 Good News

For some special graphs, we know exactly when they are k-colourable.

Interval graphs (conflict graphs of intervals):

b b
d d

a a
c c

For interval graphs,

minimum number of colours need = maximum size of a complete subgraph

So the “flight gate” problem and the “register allocation” can be solved.
This Lecture

• Graph coloring

• Applications

• Planar graphs
 Map Colouring

Colour the map using minimum number of colours so that

two countries sharing a border are assigned different colours.
 Map Colouring

Can we draw a map so that there are 5 countries

such that any two of which are adjacent? NO

Can we draw a map which need 5 colours?NO

Conjecture (1852) Every map is 4-colourable.

“Proof” by Kempe 1879, an error is found 11 years later.

(Kempe 1879) Every map is 5-colourable.

Theorem (Apple Haken 1977). Every map is 4-colourable.

The proof is computer assisted, some mathematics are still not happy.
 Planar Graphs

- Each vertex is a region.

- Two regions have an edge
if they are adjacent.

This is a planar graph.

A graph is planar if there is a way to

draw it in the plane without edges
crossing.
 Non-Planar Graphs

Can we draw a map so that there are 5 countries

such that any two of which are adjacent? NO
 Four Continuous Faces

An important concept of a planar graph is its faces.

So let’s study it in some details.

II

IV II
I

4 Connected Regions
 Region Boundaries

d
 Region Boundaries

abca
b

d
 Region Boundaries

abca
b

abda
a

d
 Region Boundaries

abca
b

abda
a

acda
d
outer region
 Region Boundaries

abca
b

abda
a
bcdb

acda
outer region d
Region Boundaries: Bridge
 Region Boundaries: Bridge
f

a c e

efge
abcda

abcefgecda

outer region
Region Boundaries: Dongle
 Region Boundaries: Dongle
s

r y x

v
t
w

rstur

outer region
u
 Region Boundaries: Dongle
s

r y x

v
t
w

u
 Region Boundaries: Dongle
s
stvxyxvwvturs

r y x

v
t
w

rstur

u
 Planar Embeddings

A planar embedding is a graph along with its face boundaries: cycles

(same graph may have different embeddings)

two length 5 faces length 7 face

 Euler’s Formula

If a connected planar graph has v vertices, e edges, and f faces,

then

v –e +f = 2

v=5, e=5, f=2 v=6, e=10, f=6 v=9, e=8, f=1

 Proof of Euler’s Formula

If a connected planar graph has v vertices, e edges, and f faces,

then

v –e +f = 2
Proof by induction on the number of vertices.

Base case (v=1):

v=1 f=e+1
 Proof of Euler’s Formula

If a connected planar graph has v vertices, e edges, and f faces,

then

v –e +f = 2
Induction step (v>1):

“contract” the red edge

v’=v-1, e’=e-1, f’=f

Number of faces is the same, although some faces get shorter.

By induction, v’-e’+f’=2. This implies v-e+f=2.

 Application of Euler’s Formula

Claim. If G is a simple planar graph with at least 3 vertices, then

e <= 3v-6

Let be the face lengths.

Note that

Contribute because each edge contributes 2 to the sum Contribute

s one to s two to
two faces one face
 Application of Euler’s Formula

Claim. If G is a simple planar graph with at least 3 vertices, then

e <= 3v-6

Let be the face lengths.

Note that

Since the graph is simple, each face is of length at least 3.

So

Since e = v+f-2, this implies

 Application of Euler’s Formula

Claim. If G is a simple planar graph with at least 3 vertices, then

e <= 3v-6

Claim. Every simple planar graph has a vertex of degree at most 5.

1. Suppose every vertex has degree at least 6.

2. Then e >= 6v/2 = 3v.
3. A contradiction.
 6-Colouring Planar Graphs

Claim. Every simple planar graph has a vertex of degree at most 5.

Theorem. Every planar graph is 6-colourable.

v 1. Proof by induction on the number of vertices.

2. Let v be a vertex of degree at most 5.
3. Remove v from the planar graph G.
4. Note that G-v is still a planar graph.

G-v 5. By induction, G-v is 6-colourable.

6. Since v has at most 5 neighbours,
7. v can always choose a colour (from the 6 colours).
 Application of Euler’s Formula

Can we draw a map so that there are 5 countries

such that any two of which are adjacent? NO

Can this graph have a planar drawing?

Claim. If G is a simple planar graph with at least 3 vertices, then

e <= 3v-6

This graph has v=5 and e=10, and so does not satisfy the claim.
Polyhedra

Icosahedron gives a 5 regular planar graph.