Correlational Studies

E.M. CLIMA
Objectives of the Lesson

• At the end of the lesson students are

expected to:
• 1. Describe correlational statistics.
• 2. Analyze Correlational data using
statistical tool/s
• 3. Interpret Correlational statistical results
The Statistics Show
Don’t you know????
• Research from Stanford University School has
also shown that men in monogamous
relationships or with a loved one are less likely
to die from a heart attack, potentially due to
lowered blood pressure, than those who live in
prolonged isolation.

• Every time you cuddle, it triggers the release

of happiness hormone oxytocin to increase
your mood and wellbeing. This phenomenon is
so well-documented, in fact, that
oxytocin is often referred to as the "cuddling h
 NULL
HYPOTHESIS (H0)
A statistical hypothesis that
states that there is no
difference between a
parameter and a particular
value.
 ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS (H1)
A statistical hypothesis
that states that a
parameter and a
particular value has a
difference.
In equation
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝜇
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐾.
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 𝐾
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠𝐾
( 𝜇 > 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 < 𝐾)
 ONE-TAILED TEST
𝐴 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠:
𝐻0: 𝜇=𝐾
𝐻1: 𝜇 >𝐾
𝑜𝑟
 TWO-TAILED TEST
𝐴 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑤𝑜 − 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠:
𝐻0: 𝜇=𝐾
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠𝐾
In summary
TWO-TAILED RIGHT-TAILED TEST LEFT-TAILED TEST

𝐻0: 𝜇 𝐻0: 𝜇 𝐻0: 𝜇 = 𝐾

=𝐾 =𝐾

𝐻1: 𝜇 𝐻1: 𝜇 𝐻1:𝜇 < 𝐾

≠ 𝐾 > 𝐾
Tails of a Test :Determine a tail

• A two-tailed test has rejection regions

in both tails;
• A left-tailed test has the rejection
region in the left tail; and,
• A right-tailed test has the rejection
region in the right tail of the
distribution curve.
•A one tailed hypothesis, also known as a
directional hypothesis, points to what
direction the effect will appear in, for
example if we were studying whether
student's attendance affects their grades,
the one tailed hypothesis would be that
students with higher attendance will have
significantly higher grades than students
with low attendance..
•a two-tailed hypothesis, also known as non-
directional, will still predict that there will be
an effect, but will not say what direction it
will appear in. For example, in the same
study a two-tailed hypothesis might look
like, there will be a significant
difference in the grades of students with
high attendance and students with low
attendance.A null hypothesis is separate as
it says that there will not be a psychological
test in either condition.
Tails of a Test
Determine if each is case of a two-tailed, a left-tailed, or a right-
1. In the 1970s,
tailed test. 20–29 year old men in the Philippines had a mean μ
body weight of 150 pounds. Standard deviation σ was 30 pounds. We
test whether mean body weight in the population now differs.
two-tailed
2. A parents’ organization in a school is concerned about the proportion
of fat content of the burgers sold in the canteen. The canteen claims
that the proportion is only 18%, but some students believe that the fat
content is higher than that. right-tailed
3. A company claims that the mean amount of soda in all soft drink cans
on the average is 12 ounces. Suppose a consumer agency wants to
left-tailed
test whether the mean amount of soda per can is less than 12
ounces .
 EXERCISES
Write the null and alternative
hypotheses for the following situations.
1. A parents’ organization in a
school is concerned about the
proportion of fat content of the
burgers sold in the school canteen.
The canteen claims that the
proportion is only about 18%. But
some students believe that the fat
content is higher than that.
EXERCISES
•2. A maternity hospital claims that the mean birth weigh
babies delivered in their charity ward is 2.5 kg. But that is not wh
group of obstetricians believe.
Activity : 2
1. Write the null and alternative hypotheses for each of the following
examples. Determine if each is case of a two-tailed, a left-tailed, or
a right-tailed test.
To test if the mean number of hours spent
working per week by college students who hold
jobs is different from 20 hours
To test whether or not a bank’s ATM is out of
service for an average of more than 10 hours
per month
To test if the mean length of experience of
airport security guards is different from 3 years
To test if the mean time a customer has to wait
on the phone to speak to a representative of a
mail order company about unsatisfactory
service is more than 12 minutes
 EXERCISES
Write the null and alternative
hypotheses for the following situations.
1. A parents’ organization in a
school is concerned about the
proportion of fat content of the
burgers sold in the school canteen.
The canteen claims that the
proportion is only about 18%. But
some students believe that the fat
content is higher than that.
EXERCISES
•2. A maternity hospital claims that the mean birth weigh
babies delivered in their charity ward is 2.5 kg. But that is not wh
group of obstetricians believe.
Correlational study

•A research type that examines the

extent to which two (2) variables are
associated, or correlated with each
other
1.Study habits vs academic grades
2.Evaluating the link between student success and
parents’ involvement
3.Discuss test scores and study time
4.Shoe size and fatigue
5.pollution and Health
6.Age and Religion
7.The relationship between study time and poor
grades
8.The association between school bullying and
absenteeism
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is the most
widely used correlation coefficient and is known by
many names:

• Pearson’s r
• Bivariate correlation
• Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient (PPMCC)
• The correlation coefficient
•The Pearson correlation
coefficient is a
descriptive statistic, meaning
that it summarizes the
characteristics of a dataset.
•The Pearson correlation
coefficient is also an
inferential statistic, meaning
that it can be used to
test statistical hypotheses.
Magnitude
•The strength of the relationship.
Correlations must be between -1
and + 1. correlations closer to an
absolute value of 1 represents
stronger relationship
Valence
•The charge of the
relationship, the nature of the
relationship. Correlations can
be positive, negative or zero
Positive Correlation

•One variable changes the

other variable tends to
change in the same direction
Negative Correlation

•Correlations in which as
one variable changes the
other tends to change in
the opposite direction
Zero Correlation

•No relationship exist

between the two variables
Using Scatter Diagram

•INTERPRETATION
Example
Activity.

•YOUR TIME TO SHINE!!

Your Group Tasks : Get the
Degree of relationship using Data
analysis
Your Group tasks!
• Write a brief interpretation of this correlation, including the
strength, direction, and an explanation of the effect.
• A) Example : There is a very strong, negative correlation
between (Variable 1?)and (Variable 2), show the scatter plot
• B) Can you say that being more stressed causes a lower level
of life satisfaction? Why or why not?
• C) Look for 2 things around the school and briefly describe
how its relationship help students, organization, or a
protocols in the school, community, family , or individual
• D) Present Infront of the Class using Powerpoint
On P Value
•The most common threshold is p <
0.05, which means that the data is
likely to occur less than 5% of the time
under the null hypothesis. When the p-
value falls below the chosen alpha
value, then we say the result of the
test is statistically significant.
Normally will say that a P value
of . 05 or less is significant in which
case we reject the null
hypothesis (accept the alternative
hypothesis). If the P value is greater
than 0.05, we accept the null
hypothesis and conclude that there
is no significant difference between
• T-test Formula
• The t-test formula helps us to compare the average
values of two data sets and determine if they belong to
the same population or are they different. The t-score is
compared with the critical value obtained from the t-
table. The large t-score indicates that the groups are
different and a small t-score indicates that the groups
are similar.
What Is the T-test Formula?

• The t-test formula is applied to the sample population.

The t-test formula depends on the mean, variance, and
standard deviation of the data being compared. There
are 3 types of t-tests that could be performed on the n
number of samples collected.
• One-sample test,
• Independent sample t-test and
• Paired samples t-test
• The critical value is obtained from the t-table looking for
the degree of freedom(df = n-1) and the corresponding
α value(usually 0.05 or 0.1). If the t-test obtained
statistically > CV then the initial hypothesis is wrong
and we conclude that the results are significantly
different.
Example Using the Formula for t-Test
Cont.
• Some studies have shown that in the United States, men
spend more than women buying gifts and cards on Valentine’s
Day. Suppose a researcher wants to test this hypothesis by
randomly sampling nine men and 10 women with comparable
demographic characteristics from various large cities across
the United States to be in a study. Each study participant is
asked to keep a log beginning one month before Valentine’s
Day and record all purchases made for Valentin’s Day during
that one-month period. The resulting data are shown below.
Use these data and a 1% level of significance to test to
determine if, on average, men actually do spend significantly
more than women on Valentine’s Day.
• Assume that such spending is normally
distributed in the population and that the
population variance are equal.
Men Women
(in Php) (in PhP)

107.48 125.98
143.61 45.53
90.19 56.35
125.53 80.62
70.7 46.37
83 44.34
129.63 75.21
154.22 68.48
93.8 85.82
126.11
6.) Draw Conclusion
6.) Draw Conclusion
6.) Draw Conclusion
• ANOVA Test
• ANOVA Test is used to analyze the differences among
the means of various groups using certain estimation
procedures. ANOVA means analysis of variance. ANOVA
test is a statistical significance test that is used to check
whether the null hypothesis can be rejected or not
during hypothesis testing.
• An ANOVA test can be either one-way or two-way
depending upon the number of independent variables.
In this article, we will learn more about an ANOVA test,
the one-way ANOVA and two-way ANOVA, its formulas
and see certain associated examples.
What is ANOVA Test?

• ANOVA test, in its simplest form, is used to check

whether the means of three or more populations are
equal or not. The ANOVA test applies when there are
more than two independent groups. The goal of the
ANOVA test is to check for variability within the groups
as well as the variability among the groups. The ANOVA
test statistic is given by the f test.
ANOVA Test Definition

• ANOVA test can be defined as a type of test used in

hypothesis testing to compare whether the means of
two or more groups are equal or not. This test is used to
check if the null hypothesis can be rejected or not
depending upon the statistical significance exhibited by
the parameters. The decision is made by comparing the
ANOVA test statistic with the critical value.
ANOVA Test Example

• Suppose it needs to be determined if consumption of a

certain type of tea will result in a mean weight loss. Let
there be three groups using three types of tea - green
tea, earl grey tea, and jasmine tea. Thus, to compare if
there was any mean weight loss exhibited by a certain
group, the ANOVA test (one way) will be used.
• Suppose a survey was conducted to check if there is an
interaction between income and gender with anxiety
level at job interviews. To conduct such a test a two-way
ANOVA will be used.