Math - 11th

Grade

Statistics and
Probability:
Probability
Distributions
 Lesson 1: What is Statistics?

Statistics is the science that deals with

the collection, organization and
presentation, analysis and interpretation
of all kinds of data pertinent to the
study being considered so that a
meaningful conclusion can be drawn.
 The field of statistics is normally
divided into two: descriptive and
inferential statistics.

• Descriptive statistics is a group of statistical measurements that

aims to provide the basic characteristics of a data set through tables
and graphs and other descriptive measures such as measures of
central tendency, measures of position, and measures of variation.
• Inferential statistics aims to infer or to make
interpretations by making a concluding statement about
the population based on the result derived from a data set.
Measures commonly used in inferential statistics include
analysis of variance, t-test, Chi-square test,
correlation, and regression analysis.
 The Four Essential Processes in
Statistics are as follows:

1. Collection of Data - refers to the gathering of related information

such as (a) what is useful and needed, (b) where to get information,
and (c) how to get information.

2. Organization and Presentation of Data - refers to the systematic

way of organizing data. It involves (a) collecting, (b) classifying and
arraying, and (c) presenting data gathered in preparation to its analysis.
3. Analysis of Data - refers to extracting relevant information from the
data at hand. It involves (a) comparison and contrast, (b) description,
and (c) statistical measurement to come up with numerical values and
qualitative summary as a resulting conclusion.

4. Interpretation of Data - refers to the drawing of logical statements

from the analyzed information. It involves (a) generalizing, (b)
forecasting, and (c) recommending solutions and interventions about the
study.
Data is a body of information or observations being
considered by the researcher. When the data is
processed, information, which is the basis for decision
making is produced.

Variable is used to define certain observable values or

characteristics. It is called a variable since the characteristics may
vary from one another. The values of the variable are the possible
observable values or characteristics of the variable. These values
are the data to be processed.
 There are different ways of
classifying data:

● ACCORDING TO NATURE
● ACCORDING TO SOURCE
● ACCORDING TO
ARRANGEMENT
 ACCORDING TO NATURE

Quantitative or Qualitative or
numerical data categorical data
are those obtained are those obtained from
from variables variables which are in
which are in form the form of categories,
of numbers, e. g. characteristics, names
age, height, or labels, e.g. gender,
weight, and socio-economic status,
amount. civil status.
 ACCORDING TO SOURCE
Primary data are first-hand information, e.g. data gathered
from a survey, where the person who collected the data is the
one using it.

Secondary data are second-hand information, e.g.

information from newspapers or journals, economic
indicators. The data being used recollected by another person
or organization.
 ACCORDING TO ARRANGEMENT

Ungrouped data are the data without any specific order

or arrangement. They are referred to as raw data.

Grouped data are data arranged or tabulated and

presented in an organized manner.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA CAN BE
FURTHER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING
TO MEASUREMENT
Discrete data are those obtained from counting process where data are
whole numbers, e.g. household size, number of cans of sardines produced.

Continuous data are those obtained through the measuring process where
data are values that may be decimals or fractions, e.g. inflation rate, weight
in kilograms.
THERE ARE FOUR SCALES OF DATA
MEASUREMENT ALSO REFERRED TO
AS LEVELS OF DATA.
It was the American psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens
who proposed the following four levels of measurement or scales
of measure.

Nominal Level Interval Level

Ordinal Level Ratio Level
1. Nominal Level. Data in this level are classified into categories. Names
are used as labels. Numbers and letters are used to represent variables.
Examples:
a. Marital Status: Single, Married, Divorce
b. Gender: Male, Female
i. M may be used instead of Male
F may be used instead of Female
ii. 1 may be used instead of Male
2 may be used instead of Female
 2. Ordinal Level. Data in this level are ranked but the
degree of difference between them are not determined.
Items are ordered when sorted out.

Examples:

a. Size: small, medium, large, extra large

b. Rank: 1st, 2nd,3rd, etc.

3. Interval Level has all the properties of the ordinal level.
The intervals between values in a set of interval data are
consistent and meaningful, but it does not involve true zero
point. Furthermore, since they are real numbers, all
calculations can be performed.
Examples:
a. IQ scores of students in a grade 11 class.
b. Temperature in Celsius scale
4. Ratio Level has all the properties of the interval scale. In
this level, there is a true zero point (an absolute value of
zero) and multiplication and division of measurements can
be performed.

Examples:
1. height
2. weight
3. Mass is measured on ratio scale
4. Length is also measured on ratio scale.
PRACTICE TIME: Something to Chew On
A. The following are some items in a survey questionnaire. Classify
each of the items according to nature.
1. Control number
2. Marital status
3. Number of Children
4. Educational Attainment
5. Occupation
6. Average gross monthly income
7. Years of service in the company
8. Number of hours spent daily chatting online
9. Number of glasses of water taken daily
10. Extent by which study habit affects the performance of a student
B. Complete the table by classifying the data according to nature. If data is
quantitative, classify further according to measurement.
No. Variables According to Nature According to Measurement
1 ID number of students
2 No. of pages in a book
3 Date of birth
4 Model of cellphone used
5 Number of text messages sent daily
6 Daily allowance
7 Computer rental fee
8 Kilowatt hour used per month
9 No. of students per class
10 Monthly expenses for internet used
C. Classify each of the following as nominal, ordinal, interval,
or ratio level of data.
1. Monthly sales in a school canteen
2. Zip code
3. Scores in a mathematics quiz
4. Socio-economic status
5. Name of fast food chain in the Philippines
6. Dates on a calendar
7. Time required solving mathematics problem
8. Monthly amount of gasoline used by the family
9. The color of your eyes
10. The number on an athlete's uniform
 Lesson 2.
RANDOM
VARIABLES
AND
PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
S
A random variable is a numerical quantity
that is generated by random experiment.

We denote random variables by capital

letters, such as X or Z, and the actual
values that they can take by lowercase
letters, such as x and z.
 Table 1.1 FOUR EXAMPLES OF
RANDOM VARIABLES
Experiment Number X Possible Values of X
Roll two fair dice Sum of the number of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
dots on the top faces 11, 12
Flip a fair coin Number of tosses until 1, 2, 3, 4, …
repeatedly the coin lands heads
Measure the voltage at Voltage measured
an electrical outlet
Operate a light bulb Time until the bulb
until it burns out burns out
Types of Random Variables

Discrete Continuous
Random Variable Random Variable
 A random variable is called discrete if it has
either a finite or a countable number of possible
values.
A random variable is called continuous if its
possible values contain a whole interval numbers.
Discrete Random Variables
Examples:
1. Number of heads in 4 flips of a coin (possible outcomes are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
2. Number of classes missed last week (possible outcomes are 0, 1, 2, 3,
…, up to the maximum number of classes)
3. Amount won or lost when betting P20 on the Philippine lottery.
Continuous Random Variables
Examples:
1. Height of individuals
2. Time to finish the test
3. Hours spent exercising last week
 PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
FOR DISCRETE
RANDOM
VARIABLES
 A probability distribution of a discrete
random variable X is a list of each possible
value of X and the corresponding
probabilities of the values.

A probability distribution has two

requirements:

1. Each probability P(x) must be between

or equal to 0 and 1; that is .

2. The sum of all the probabilities is 1.

Example:
A fair coin is tossed twice. Let X be the number of
heads that are observed.

a. Construct the probability distribution of X.

b. Find the probability that at least one head is observed.

Solutions:
a. The possible values of X that can take are 0, 1, and 2. Each of these
numbers corresponds to an event in the same sample space of equally
likely outcomes for this experiment: X = 0 to , X = 1 to , and X = 2 to .
The probability of each of these events, hence of the corresponding value
of X, can be found simply by counting, to give.

x 0 1 2
P(x) 0.25 0.50 0.25
This table is the probability distribution of X.
b. “At least one head” is the event , which is the union of the
mutually exclusive events X=1 and X=2. Thus,

A histogram that graphically illustrates the probability distribution is given

in Figure 1. 1.
0.5

0.25

0
0 1 2
Example 2
A pair of fair dice is rolled. Let X denotes the
sum of the number of dots on the top faces.
a. Construct the probability distribution of X.
b. Find P(X≥9).
c. Find the probability that X takes an even value.
Solutions:
The sample space of equally likely outcomes is.

(1,1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)

(2,1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
(3,1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(4,1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
(5,1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
(6,1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
a. The possible values for X are the numbers 2 through 12. X = 2 is the
event so X = 3 is the event , so . Continuing this was we obtain the
table

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P(x)

This table is the probability distribution of X.

c. Before we immediately jump to the conclusion that the probability that X
takes an even value must be 0.5, note that X takes six different even values
but only five different odd values.
 A histogram that graphically
illustrates the probability distribution is
given in Figure 1. 2.
0.18
Probability of the Number of Dots

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Sum of the Number of Dots

Practice Exercises (Random variables)
A. Classify each random variable as either discrete or continuous.
1. The number of arrivals at an emergency room between midnight and 6:00
a.m.
2. The weight of a box of cereal labeled 18 ounces.
3. The duration of the next outgoing telephone call from a business office.
4. The number of kernels of popcorn in a 1-pound contanair.
5. The number of applicants for a job.
6. The number of boys in a randomly selected three-child family.
7. The temperature of a cup of coffee served at a restaurant.
8. The number of no-shows for every 100 reservations made with a
commercial airline.
9. The number of vehicles owned by a randomly selected household.
10. The average amount spent on electricity each July by a randomly
selected household in a certain state.
 Practice Exercises (Probability Distribution for Discrete Random
Variables)
A. Determine whether the distribution is a probability distribution of a
discrete random variable. Explain fully.
1. 3.
x -2 0 2 4 x 1.1 2.5 4.1 4.6 5.3
P(x) 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.1 P(x) 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.2 0.2
6 4 7 2
2. x 0.5 0.25 0.25
P(x) -0.4 0.6 0.8
B. A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution:

x 77 78 79 80 81

P(x) 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.40 0.10

Tabulate each of the following.

C. Solve the problem below.
Two fair of dice are rolled at once. Let X denote
the difference in the number of dots that appear
on the top faces of the two dice. For example, if a
one and a five are rolled, X=4, and if two sixes
are rolled, X=0. Construct the probability
distribution for X.