Human

Anatomyand

physiology
COURSE CONTENTS
Unit 1: Introduction
Unit 2 ; cell
Unit 3; tissue and membarene
Unit 4: THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Unit 5: Skeletal system
Unit 6: Mascular System
Unit 7: The Nervous system
Unit 8: Endocrine System
Unit 9: Cardiovascular System
Unit 10: Respiratory System
Unit 11: The Digestive System
Unit 12: body fluids and electrolytes
ballance
Unit 13; Urinary System
Unit 14: Anatomy of Reproductive organs
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION
the word ‘anatome’ is derived from
greek word meaning cutting up (ana-
up; tome - cutting).
 Anatomy;- is a science that study’s
about body’s structure and how this
structures are related to each other
• Physiology:- is a science that study’s about
body’s function
 Anatomy is subdivided according to the
method of description into(3)
1) Gross (macroscopic) anatomy Studies body structure
without microscope
- Regional anatomy
- Systemic anatomy
• 2) Microscopic anatomy ( = Histology e.g. cell and tissue
• 3) Other subdivisions:
. Applied ( clinical) anatomy
. Surgical anatomy
. Surface anatomy
. Radiological anatomy
. Developmental anatomy
 HOMEOSTASIS

• When structure and

function are coordinated
the body achieves a
relative stability of its
internal environment
LEVEL OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF
THE BODY
• The human body has different
structural levels of organization,
starting with atoms molecules and
compounds and increasing in size
and complexity to cells, tissues,
organs and the systems that make up
the complete organism.
• Cell:- The smallest independent units of life.
All life depends on the many chemical
activities of cells.
• Tissue:- tissue is made up of many similar cells
that perform a specific function. The various
tissues of the body are divided in to four
groups.
1- Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of
organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities.
2- Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of
the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and
tendons.
3-Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to
contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles.
4-Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve
impulses
Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or
more kinds of tissue that works together to
perform specific function. For example:
Stomach is made of all type of tissues
System: Is a group of organs that work
together to perform major function. For
example: Respiratory system contains
several organs.
Organism level: - The various organs of the
body form the entire organism.
 Anatomical Position.
• Anatomical positions are universally accepted
as the starting points for positional references
to the body. In anatomical position
• the subject is standing erect
• facing the observer,
• the feet are together, and
• the arms are hanging at the sides with the
palms facing forward.
Anatomical positions
 ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES
 An international vocabulary has been
established for anatomy and medicine.
 RELATIVE DIRECTIONAL TERM
Superior – above e.g. the leg is superior to the foot
Inferior – below e.g. the foot is inferior to the leg
Cranial– nearer to the head
Caudal – nearer to the tail
Anterior – in front (toward the front of the body).
E.g. the nose is anterior to the ears.
Posterior- towards the back of the body
(behind).e.g. the ears are posterior to the nose.
Medial- nearer to the mid line e.g. the nose is
medial to the eyes
 Cont------
Lateral – to the side (away from the midline of
the body) e.g. the eyes are lateral to the nose
Proximal- toward (nearer) the trunk of the
body or the attached end of a limb. E.g. the
shoulder is proximal to the forearm.
Distal – lower (away) from the trunk of the body
or the attached end of a limb e.g. the wrist is distal
to the forearm.
Palmar( volar) – on the side of the palm
Plantar – on the side of sole of the foot
Superficial – nearer to the body surface. e.g. the
ribs are superficial to the heart
Deep- nearer to the center of the body (farther
from the surface of the body). e.g. the heart is
deeper to the ribs
Peripheral – away from the central axis of the
body. E.g. peripheral nerves radiate away from
the brain & spinal cord.
Dorsal – in the direction of the back
•Ipsilateral and contralateral
–Ipsilateral: refers to the same side of
the body e.g. the left hand and left
foot are ipsilateral
–Contralateral: refers to the opposite
side of the body e.g. the left hand and
right foot are contralateral.
– Supine and prone
– Supine position: means that the
ventral surface of the body faces up.
–Prone position: means that the
ventral surface of the body is towards
the ground
 Terms of movement
Flexion and extension
Flexion: bends the joint interiorly, so as to
approximate anterior surfaces to each other.
Extension: is the reverse of flexion, i.e. it moves
anterior surfaces away from each other.
Adduction and abduction
Adduction: is the movement of the limb
medially towards the median plane
Abduction: is the reverse of adduction, i.e. it
moves the limb laterally away from the median
plane.
Rotation
Medial rotation: Movement of ventral
surface toward the midline.
Lateral rotation: movement of a ventral
surface away from the midline.
Circumduction
It is a series of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction movements
which follow one another in succession.
Pronation and supination
occur in the forearm where the radius
rotates around its longitudinal axis.
pronation: The palm of the hand turns
backwards or downwards (the radius
crosses in front of the ulna)
supination: The palm faces forwards of
upwards (the radius lies parallel with
the ulna)
 Inversion and eversion
These movements occur in the foot at the
sub talar joint
 inversion: The sole of the foot (its inferior
surface) is directed inwards.
 eversion: the sole is directed outwards
 . OTHER MOVEMENTS

Elevation: moving up
Protraction: moving anteriorly
Depression: moving down
Retraction: moving posteriorly
 BODY CAVITIES
1;-The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity
and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity.
The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the
rib cage & associated musculature and the sternum anteriorly. It
consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the
portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right
lung).
Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the
diaphragm inferior to the floor of the
pelvis. It is divided into
a, superior abdominal
b, inferior pelvic cavity
by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis.
Abdominal cavity contains the stomach,
intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder.
The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder,
rectum, and portions of the reproductive
organs
2;-The dorsal body cavity: it
constitutes the cephalic cavity
containing brain and the vertebral
canal containing the spinal cord.
Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavity
 used to describe the location
of abdominal organs and the pain
associated with abdominal
problems
 The two schemes most often
used are:
-a four-quadrant pattern
-a nine-region organizational
description
Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavit
 BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes

lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps
for further identification of specific areas
Sagittal plane: -
divides the body into right and left half. -
a, Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal
left and right halv -
b,Para sagittal plane: - divides body into unequal
left and right
Frontal plane: - divides the body
into asymmetrical antererior and
posterior sections.
Transverse plane: - divides the
body into upper and lower body
section.
Oblique plane: - divides the body
obliquely into upper and lower
section.
 Levels of Structural human Organization

–Chemical Level: interaction of atoms

–Cell Level: functional unit of life
–Tissue Level: group of similar cells and
the materials surrounding them
–Organ Level: one or more tissues
functioning together
–Organ System Level: group of organs
functioning together
–Organism Level: any living thing.
 THE CELL
Cell is the basic living structural and functional unit of
the body.
Cytology: - It is a branch of science concerned with a
study of cells
Cells are the basic unit of life.
-Cells carryout all the necessary functions for life such
as:
reproduction,
taking in nutrients and
excreting wastes.
Cells are made up of chemicals and molecules. Human
cells contain mostly water.
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CELL
Cells are classified as prokaryotic and
eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells lack a well-defined nucleus
and many organelles. Bacteria are prokaryotic
cells.
Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus
and many organelles include the protists, fungi,
plant and animal cells.
 CHAPTER TWO

Muktar kurbad (Rn Bsc Ho).

 BODY TISSUES
• Body Tissues are composed of
similar cells performing similar
functions
4 types function
Epithelial tissue-- covering/lining
Connective Tissue ----suporting
Muscular Tissue -----movement
Nervous Tissue ----controlling
•1.Epithelial tissue (epithelium):- Covers body
surface and Line hollow organs, body cavities &
ducts
It has two types:
a, Membranous
b, glandular
•A. Membranous
–Covers the body's surface,
–covers inner body cavities and lumina (hollow
portion body tubes), and the covering of visceral
organs.
–Externally provides protection from drying, injury
and bacterial invasion
THREE KINDS OF MEMBRANES
1;-mucous, m;- lines body cavity that
opens directly to the exterior Eg;-GIT RS
RS
2;-serous M;- Covers the organs that lie
with in the cavity. Serosa is composed of
parietal layer (pertaining to be outer) and
visceral layer
3;-synovial.M;-lines the cavities of the
freely movable joints
B. Glandular
it has two types
 exocrine glands
secretes products into ducts
E g. salivary and sweat
 endocrine glands
it secretes products into blood
e.g. pituitary and thyroid glands
Based on shape epithelial tissue there are
three types
- Squamous
- flat cells
- found lining lungs and blood vessels
- Cubodial
- cubed shaped cells
- line the kidney tubules
- Columnar
- cells resemble columns,
- line the digestive tract
 Based on No cell layers Epithelial tissue
are also three types :
- Simple: single layer of cells
- Stratified: double layers e.g. nose,
mouth, esophagus, outer skin.
- Pseudostratified: appears to be stratified
- instead each cell attached to the
basement membran
2. Connective Tissue
- Protects & support the body & its organs it binds
structures together
- Fills spaces, Stores Fat and their Cells are widely
separated by a matrix
-it has 5 types
i . Loose Connective Tissue
ii. Fibrous Connective Tissue
iii. Cartilage
iv. Bone
v. Blood
3.MUSCULAR TISSUE
the muscle tissue is formed of muscle
cells;which produce contraction
muscle cells are long and narrow, so they are
called ‘muscle fibers
composed of fiber that contain "actin"
and "myosin" microfilaments
movement (muscular contraction)
occurs when these two interact
three types of muscular tissue exist
a) skeletal
b) smooth and
c) cardiac
a) Skeletal muscle
attaches to the bones, its function
is to move the skeleton
is under voluntary control
its fibers are cylindrical
are many nucleated
have striated appearance
is the fastest of all muscular
contractions
b; Smooth muscle
•lacks dark bands, no striations
•is an involuntary muscle
•Found in the intestines, stomach,
arteries
•Muscles contract more slowly
•can remain contracted for a longer
period of time
C; Cardiac muscle
Is present in the heart,
 responsible for the heartbeat
 have striated appearance
Fibers appear branched, so that
the contractions occur in many
directions
Is an involuntary muscle
4. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue contains two principal cell types.
These are
a,the neurons
b,the neuroglia.
Neurons ;-are nerve cells, sensitive to various
stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse.
Neurons ;-are the structural and functional unit of
the nervous system. It contains 3 basic portions.
These are cell body, axons and dendrites.
Neuroglias;-are cells that protect, nourish and
support neurons.
neurons composed of:
Dendrite - conducts impulse to the cell body
Axon - conducts impulse away from the cell body

Cell body - contains nucleus

NEUROGLIAL CELLS
Support and protect the neurons
Those that encircle the fibers are called
"Schwann" cells
outer layer called "neurilemma" promotes
growth in damaged cells
inner fatty layer called "myelin" provides
insulation
There are "gaps" between these cells
called nodes of Ranvier
the nodes pass on the nervous impulse
End of unit two
 UNIT THREE
INTEGUMENTRY SYSTEM

Muktar kurbad
(Rn Bsc
Integumentry System;-consists of the skin and its
derivatives. These include hair, nails, and several
types of glands
Skin:- is the largest organ in the body occupying
almost 2m square of surface area
It is the heaviest single organ of the body, 16%
of the total body weight.

Skin has 3 main parts. These are

1;-epidermis,
2;-dermis and
3;- hypodermis
 EPIDERMIS
–Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that
is made of stratified squamous epithelium.
It has no blood supply. Composed of
epithelial tissue (keratinized stratified
squamous)
–Cell population:
• Keratinocytes (majority) – produce Keratin
fibrous protein.
– Dead cells in the upper portions of the epidermis
• Melanocytes – synthesize melanin
Langerhans’ cells (epidermal dendritic cells) –are
macrophages of the skin
Arise from the bone marrow
Most abundant in the stratum spinosum
Merkel cells – sensory reception
Located at the epidermal-dermal
junction
Epidermis contains 4-5 strata. These are
1. Stratum Corneum
2. Stratum lucidum (thick skin only)
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum spinosum
5. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
– deepest layer
Attached to the dermis
Single row of rapidly dividing keratinocytes
Melanocytes and occasionally Merkel cells
present
Stratum spinosum
Several thick layers
Appear spiny in shape
Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells are
present in this layer
Stratum granulosum
Three to five thick layers
Keratinocytes appear flattened.
•Stratum lucidum (thin skin only)
– Found only in the palms, fingertips, and soles of
the feet
– Appears translucent under the microscope
– Few rows of clear, flat and dead keratinocytes
•Stratum Corneum – outermost layer
– 15-20 layers of flattened non-nucleated cells
whose cytoplasm is filled with a keratin (are thus
keratinized cells).
– Protect deeper cells from water loss, the effects of
air, chemical, physical, and biological assault
– These cells are continuously shed at the surface of
the stratum corneum.
 2;-DERMIS
Dermis / true skin/ a strong, flexible, connective tissue
mesh work of collagen, reticular and elastic fibers. Most
part of the skin is composed of dermis.
Subdivided into two layers:
1-Papillary layer
thin layer
Composed of areolar connective tissue
Highly vascularized
2-Reticular layer :
Highly vascularized and innervated
Major portions of the hair follicles and oil and sweat
glands are found in this layer
 3-HYPODERMIS
Hypoderms:- it is found beneath the dermis. It is a
subcutaneous layer (under the skin). Hypodermis
is composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue,
which is richly supplied with lymphatic and blood
vessels and nerves. Hypodermis is much thicker
than dermis
 FUNCTIONS OF SKIN
1. Protection: against harmful microorganisms, foreign
material and it prevents excessive loss of body fluid.
2. Temperature regulation: with the sweat, heat leaves
the body
3. Excretion: Small amount of waste products from the
body such as urea
4. Synthesis: By the action of UV. Vitamin D is synthesized
in the skin. Vitamin D is necessary for absorption
calcium from intestine.
5. Sensory reception: it contains sensory receptors of heat,
cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
 COLOR OF THE SKIN
Three pigments that contribute to skin
color:
Melanin
brownish-black pigment produced by
melanocytes in the skin
Carotene
. The accumulation of yellow pigment carotene.
Is usually deposited in the stratum corneum and
the fatty tissue of the hypodermis
Hemoglobin
pigment found in red blood cells
Oxygenated – crimson color; poorly oxygenated –
blue color
Time to check students understanding
What aretheThreepigments that contribute to skin color?

Mention layers of dermis?

Wright down function of the skin?

What are distinct sub division of epidermis?

Integumentary system consist

of-----------
 Appendages of the Skin
Are derived from the epidermis and include:

1. Nails
The nails are made of hard keratin.
contains rapidly dividing cells that
eventually become dead and
keratinized
Hardened nails protect the delicate
tissues of the fingers and toes
 HAIR
•Hair:-Hair is composed of Keratinized threads of cells, which
develops from the epidermis . Because it arises from the skin,
it is considered an appendage of the skin. It covers the entire
body except the palms, soles, lips, tip of penis, inner lips of
vulva and nipples.
– A strand of hair is composed of two layers:
– Medulla – the innermost layer
– Cortex – surrounds the medulla
– Hair color is determined by the pigment melanin produced
by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle
Function
- Insulation against cold in scalp
- Against glare in eye brows
- Screen against foreign particles (eye
lashes)
- In the nostrils trap dust particles in
the inhaled air
- Protect openings from foreign
particles.
 Structure of Hair
Hair has two parts, the shaft the part
above skin and the root embedded in the
skin.and hair folicles
The lower portion of the root, located in
the hypodermis
 Glands of the Skin
Glands of the skin are the
1;-sudoriferous gland
2;-sebaceous glands.

1;- Sudoriferous /sweatglands

Types: a) Eccrine gland
b)apocrine
glands
Eccrine glands are small, simple coiled tubular
glands distributed over nearly the entire body,
and they are absent over nail beds, margins of
lips of vulva, tips of penis.
Eccrine glands are numerous over the palms
and soles. Their secretary portion is embedded
in the hypodermis. The sweat they secret is
colorless, aqueous fluid containing neutral fats,
albumin, urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride.
Its excretion helps body temperature to be
regulated.
Apocrine glands are odiferous, found at the armpits, in
the dark region around nipples, the outer lips of the
vulva, and the anal and genital regions. They are larger
and deeply situate than eccrine sweet glands.
Secretion contains the same components of true sweat
plus fatty substances and proteins
Produces “body odor”

An apocrine sweet gland becomes active at puberty.

They respond to stress including sexual activity.
Ceruminous glands
produce wax
Wax deters insects and block the
entry of foreign material into the
ear canal
Mammary gland
specialized sweat glands that
secrete milk
 2;-Sebaceous (Oil) glands
Sebaceous glands are simple branched
alveolar glands found in the dermis. Their main
functions are lubrication and protection. They
are connected to hair follicles and secret oily
secretion called sebum. It is a semi fluid
substance composed of entirely lipids
-This type of gland found all over the body except in
the palms and soles.
- Acne vulgaris is a condition when there is over
secretion of sebum, which may enlarge the gland
and plug the pore
THANK YOU