ANIMAL

PHYSIOLOGY
Made by: Zirwa Iftikhar,
Shanzey Atif
and Maheen Raja
Breathing and Gas Exchange
System
■
•
Breathing Process
Inhalation:
• Diaphragm contracts and moves downwards.
• Intercostal muscles contract, raising the ribcage.
• This increases lung volume, decreasing pressure inside the lungs, causing air to flow in.
• Exhalation:
• Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards.
• Intercostal muscles relax, lowering the ribcage.
• This decreases lung volume, increasing pressure inside the lungs, pushing air out.
■ 2. The Role of the Lungs
• Ventilation: The process of moving air in and out of the lungs.
• Gas Exchange: Occurs in the alveoli where oxygen is absorbed into the blood and carbon
dioxide is removed from the blood.
■ 3. Gaseous Exchange at Alveoli
• Structure of Alveoli: Tiny, sac-like structures with a large surface area, one cell thick,
surrounded by capillaries.
• Diffusion: Oxygen moves from the alveoli (high concentration) to the blood (low
concentration), and carbon dioxide moves from the blood (high concentration) to the alveoli
(low concentration).
Gas Exchange and Transport in the
Body
■ Oxygen Transport
• Haemoglobin in red blood cells binds with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• Oxygen is carried from the lungs to body tissues where it is released and used in
cellular respiration.
■ 2. Carbon Dioxide Removal
• Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways:
• As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma (majority).
• Dissolved in plasma.
• Bound to haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin.
■ 3. Adaptations of the Respiratory System for Efficient Gas Exchange
• Large Surface Area: Alveoli provide a large surface for diffusion.
• Thin Walls: One-cell-thick walls of alveoli and capillaries shorten the diffusion distance.
• Moist Surface: Gases dissolve in the thin layer of moisture in the alveoli to diffuse
more easily.
• Good Blood Supply: Dense network of capillaries ensures a constant flow of blood to
maintain concentration gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide.
■
Food and Digestion
1. Overview of the Digestive System

• Mouth:
• Ingestion of food.
• Mechanical digestion through chewing (mastication).
• Chemical digestion: Saliva contains amylase to break down starch into sugars.

• Esophagus:
• Transports food from the mouth to the stomach via peristalsis (wave-like muscular contractions).

• Stomach:
• Mechanical digestion: Churning and mixing food with gastric juices.
• Chemical digestion: Gastric juices (HCl) and pepsin (enzyme) break down proteins.

• Small Intestine:
• Duodenum: Digestion of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates with enzymes from pancreas (lipase, amylase,
protease).
• Jejunum and Ileum: Absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream via villi and microvilli, which increase surface
area.

• Large Intestine:
• Absorbs water and electrolytes, forming feces.

• Anus:
• Egestion: Elimination of undigested food and waste products.

■ 2. Enzymes and Their Role

• Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose (found in saliva and pancreas).

• Protease (e.g., pepsin): Breaks down proteins into amino acids (found in stomach and pancreas).
Absorption and Transport of
Nutrients
■ 1. Nutrient Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Villi:
• Tiny, finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption.
• Contain capillaries and lacteals (lymph vessels) for nutrient transport.
• Absorption of Nutrients:
• Glucose: Absorbed by active transport into capillaries.
• Amino Acids: Absorbed by active transport into capillaries.
• Fatty Acids and Glycerol: Absorbed into lacteals (lymphatic system) and transported to the bloodstream.
■ 2. Transport of Nutrients
• Blood Circulation:
• Nutrients like glucose and amino acids are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
• The liver processes and stores nutrients, detoxifies substances, and regulates blood sugar levels.
• Fat Transport:
• Fatty acids and glycerol are reassembled into triglycerides and transported via the lymphatic system to the
bloodstream.
■ 3. Role of the Liver
• Metabolism: Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage.
• Detoxification: Breaks down toxins and drugs.
• Synthesis of Proteins: Produces plasma proteins (e.g., albumin, clotting factors).
Blood and Circulation
■ 1. Components of the Circulatory System
• Heart:
• Pumps blood throughout the body.
• Divided into four chambers: two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower
chambers).
• Right Side: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
• Left Side: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta.
• Blood Vessels:
• Arteries:
• Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary artery).
• Thick elastic walls to withstand high pressure.
• Narrow lumen.
• Veins:
• Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary vein).
• Thinner walls, wider lumen, and valves to prevent backflow.
• Capillaries:
• Tiny, one-cell-thick vessels that facilitate exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste.
• Large surface area for diffusion.
■ 2. The Circulatory Pathway
• Systemic Circulation: Oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and back.
• Pulmonary Circulation: Deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for gas exchange,
then back to the heart.
Blood Composition and
Functions
■ 1. Components of Blood
• Plasma:
• A yellowish liquid that makes up about 55% of blood.
• Carries nutrients, hormones, waste products, and dissolved gases.
• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
• Contain hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen for transport.
• No nucleus, biconcave shape to increase surface area for gas exchange.
• Live for around 120 days.
• White Blood Cells (Leukocytes):
• Part of the immune system, involved in defending the body against pathogens.
• Types include phagocytes (engulf pathogens) and lymphocytes (produce
antibodies).
• Platelets (Thrombocytes):
• Small cell fragments involved in blood clotting.
• Release clotting factors to form a fibrin mesh at injury sites.
■ 2. Functions of Blood
• Transport: Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
• Regulation: Maintains body temperature, pH balance, and osmotic pressure.
• Protection: White blood cells defend against infections, and platelets help with clotting to
prevent blood loss.
Homeostasis
■ 1. What is Homeostasis?
• Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment within the body despite external changes.
• Importance: Allows organisms to function efficiently and survive in varying environmental conditions.
■ 2. Key Variables Controlled by Homeostasis
• Body Temperature: Maintains around 37°C (98.6°F) for enzyme activity.
• Blood Glucose Levels: Maintains optimal glucose concentration for cellular respiration.
• Water and Salt Balance: Regulates water content to prevent dehydration or overhydration, maintaining
osmotic balance.
■ 3. Mechanisms of Homeostasis
• Negative Feedback: A mechanism where a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the
initial change.
• Example: Body temperature regulation. If body temperature rises, mechanisms (like sweating and
vasodilation) bring it back to normal.
• Endocrine System:
• Hormones: Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream that regulate processes such as
growth, metabolism, and stress responses.
• Key glands involved: Pancreas, Thyroid, Pituitary, Adrenal.
• Nervous System:
• Neurons detect changes in the internal environment and send signals to effectors (e.g., muscles or
glands) to restore balance.
■ 4. Example: Thermoregulation
• Heat Regulation:
• Vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) to release heat when too hot.
• Sweating to cool the body down.
• Vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) to retain heat when too cold.
• Shivering generates heat when cold.
 Excretion and the Excretory System
■ 1. What is Excretion?
• Definition: The process of removing metabolic waste products from the body, which are produced as a result of
cellular processes.
• Importance: Prevents the build up of toxic substances and maintains internal balance.
■ 2. Major Organs of Excretion
• Kidneys:
• Filter blood to remove urea, excess salts, and water, producing urine.
• Regulate the water balance in the body.
• Control blood pressure by adjusting the amount of water excreted.
• Skin:
• Excretes sweat containing water, salts, and small amounts of urea.
• Regulates body temperature (by sweating).
• Lungs:
• Excrete carbon dioxide and water vapor through exhalation, products of cellular respiration.
■ 3. The Role of the Kidneys in Excretion
• Nephron: The functional unit of the kidney where filtration, reabsorption, and secretion occur.
• Filtration: Blood is filtered in the glomerulus, and small molecules (water, urea, salts, glucose) are moved
into the Bowman's capsule.
• Reabsorption: Useful substances like glucose, water, and ions are reabsorbed into the blood in the renal
tubule.
• Secretion: Excess substances like urea and certain ions are secreted into the filtrate to be excreted as
urine.
■ 4. Osmoregulation
• Regulation of Water Balance: The kidneys adjust the volume of urine to maintain the water content of the
body.
• ADH (Antidiuretic hormone): Secreted by the pituitary gland to increase water reabsorption in the