CSE 223

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

LECTURE - 2

Prepared by
Ipshita Tasnim Raha
Lecturer
Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering
Varendra University
Contact: [email protected]

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(review)

Impurities

Donor Acceptor
Impurity Impurity
• Excess Electrons • (+)ve carrier (holes)
• Pentavalent elements • Trivalent elements
• n-type impurity • p-type impurity

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 n-type semiconductor
• When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.

• The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of

free electrons in the semiconductor crystal.

• Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic (Atomic

Number 33) and antimony (Atomic Number 51).

• Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductor are known

as donor impurities because they donate or provide free
electrons to the semiconductor crystal.

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 n-type semiconductor
• To explain the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a pure germanium crystal. We know
that germanium atom has four valence electrons. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity
like arsenic is added to germanium crystal, a large number of free electrons become available in
the crystal.

• The reason is, Arsenic is pentavalent that is, its atom has five valence electrons. An arsenic
atom fits in the germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form covalent
bonds with four germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of arsenic atom finds no place in
co-valent bonds and is thus free.

• Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one free electron will be available in the germanium
crystal. Though each arsenic atom provides one free electron, yet an extremely small amount of
arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.

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n-type semiconductor conductivity

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 p-type semiconductor
• When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.

• The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of

holes in the semiconductor.

• Typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium (Atomic

Number 31) and indium (Atomic Number 49).

• Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known

as acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the
electrons.

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 p-type semiconductor
• To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a pure germanium crystal.

• When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal, there
exists a large number of holes in the crystal. The reason is, Gallium is trivalent that is, its atom
has three valence electrons. Each atom of gallium fits into the germanium crystal but now only
three covalent bonds can be formed. It is because three valence electrons of gallium atom can
form only three single co-valent bonds with three germanium atoms.

• In other words, fourth bond is incomplete being short of one electron. This missing electron is
called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created. A small amount of
gallium provides millions of holes.

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p-type semiconductor Conductivity

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 Charge on P-type and n-type Semiconductors
• It is true that n-type semiconductor has excess of electrons but these extra electrons were
supplied by the atoms of donor impurity and each atom of donor impurity is electrically neutral.

• When the impurity atom is added the term excess electrons refers to an excess with regards to
the number of electrons needed to fill the covalent bonds in semiconductor crystal.

• The extra electrons are free electrons and increase the conductivity of the semiconductor. This
situation with regard to p-type semiconductor is also similar.

• So it follows, therefore that n-type as well as p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral.

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Majority and Minority Carriers

• N-type material has a large number of

free electrons. And a small number of
holes

• P-type material has a large number of

holes. And a small number of electrons

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n-type & p-type conductivity

Graphic demonstration is always helpful

Link: n-type and p-type semiconductors

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Semiconductor Diode

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 Semiconductor Diode
• The semiconductor diode is created by simply joining a p-type and an n-type material together.

• When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is
called pn junction

• pn junction is fabricated by special techniques. One common method of making pn junction is

called alloying.

• This semiconductor diode is represented by the following symbols, where the arrow indicates
the direction of positive current flow. These are generally used for rectifiers. It is also called the
p-n junction diode.

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How a pn-junction semiconductor works

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How a pn-junction semiconductor works

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 pn-junction of semiconductor

**The number of minority charge carriers depends only on temperature. If temperature increases, minority charge carrier will also increase.16
 pn-junction of semiconductor
• Diffusion current: The process by which, charge carriers
(electrons or holes) in a semiconductor moves from a region
of higher concentration to lower concentration is called
diffusion. Current produced due to motion of charge carriers
from a higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration is called diffusion current.

• Drift current: When the charge carriers move in a

semiconductor due to the applied electric field, the resulting
current is known as drift current.

• Both drift and diffusion current occurs in semiconductor

devices.
• The direction of diffusion current is same or opposite to that
of the drift current.

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 Biasing a pn-junction
• The term bias refers to the application of an external voltage or d.c. voltage across the two
terminals of the device to establish certain operating conditions.

• If leads are connected to the ends of each

material, a two-terminal device results as
the given picture.

• Three operating conditions then become

available:

• no bias
• forward bias
• reverse bias

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 No Applied Bias (VD= 0V)
• The condition shown in figure is the no-bias situation because there is no external voltage
applied. In the figure it is clear that the applied voltage is 0 V (no bias) and the resulting current
is 0 A, much like an isolated resistor. The absence of a voltage across a resistor results in zero
current through it.

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Forward - Bias Condition (VD > 0V)

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Forward - Bias Condition (VD > 0V)

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Reverse - Bias Condition (VD < 0V)

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Reverse - Bias Condition (VD < 0V)

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Characteristics of Diode:

i. Diode always conducts in one direction.

ii. Diodes conduct current when Forward Biased (Zero resistance)

iii. Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased (Infinite resistance)

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 V-I Characteristics of pn junction
• Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a p-n junction is the
curve between voltage across the junction and the circuit
current. Usually, voltage is taken along x-axis and current
along y-axis.

• The characteristics can be studied under three heads

a. Zero external voltage

b. Forward bias and
c. Reverse bias

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 V-I Characteristics of pn junction
1. Zero external voltage: When the external voltage is zero, that is, circuit is open, the potential
barrier at the junction does not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero as
indicated by point O in the figure.

2. Forward bias: With forward bias to the p-n junction that is, p-type connected to positive
terminal and n-type connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier is reduced. At some
forward voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), the potential barrier is altogether eliminated
and current starts flowing in the circuit. From now onwards, the current increases with the
increase in forward voltage. Thus, a rising curve OB is obtained with forward bias as shown in
the Figure

3. Reverse bias: With reverse bias to the p-n junction that is, p-type connected to negative
terminal and n-type connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is
increased. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no current
flows through the circuit.

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 V-I Characteristics of pn junction
• However, in practice, a very small current (of the order of μA) flows in the circuit with reverse
bias as shown in the reverse characteristic. This is called reverse saturation current (Is) and
is due to the minority carriers. It may be recalled that there are a few free electrons in p-type
material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable free electrons in p-type and
holes in n-type are called minority carriers. To these minority carriers, the applied reverse bias
appears as forward bias.

• Therefore, a small current flows in the reverse direction. If reverse voltage is increased
continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) may become high enough to
knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms (impact ionization). At this stage
breakdown of the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of reverse current and a
sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.

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 Important Terms

• Breakdown voltage: It is the minimum reverse

voltage at which p-n junction breaks down with
sudden rise in reverse current.

• Knee voltage: It is the forward voltage at which

the current through the junction starts to increase
rapidly. [Knee voltage is approximately equal to
the barrier potential of the diode]

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 Limitations in the Operating Conditions of
p-n Junction
• Every p-n junction has limiting values of maximum forward current, peak inverse voltage and maximum
power rating. The p-n junction will give satisfactory performance if it is operated within these limiting
values. However, if these values are exceeded, the p-n junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat.

1. Maximum forward current: It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a p-n junction can
conduct without damage to the junction. Manufacturer’s data sheet usually specifies this rating. If the
forward current in a p-n junction is more than this rating, the junction will be destroyed due to
overheating.

2. Peak inverse voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the p-n junction
without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction
may be destroyed due to excessive heat.

3. Maximum power rating: It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without
damaging it. The power dissipated at the junction is equal to the product of junction current and the
voltage across the junction. This is a very important consideration and is invariably specified by the
manufacturer in the data sheet.

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p-n junction

Let’s watch a video

Link: The PN Junction. How Diodes Work?

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 A brief assessment
1. When a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes _____

2. In a semiconductor, current conduction is due to ______

• Only holes
• Only free electrons
• Holes and free electrons
• None of the above

3. The barrier voltage at a pn junction for germanium is about _____

4. The leakage current across a pn junction is due to ______

• Minority carriers
• Majority carriers
• Junction capacitance

5. With forward bias to a pn junction , the width of depletion layer _____

• Decreases
• Increases
• Remains the same
• None of the above

6. At room temperature, an intrinsic silicon crystal acts approximately as ……

• A battery
• A conductor
• An insulator

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Think Like A Proton
Always Positive

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