Raymond A.

Serway
John W. Jewett

Chapter 1
Introduction and Vectors
An Invitation to Physics
• Physics—the most fundamental physical
science
• It deals with the basic principles of the
universe
• It is the foundation for engineering, technology,
astronomy, biology, chemistry, and geology
An Invitation to Physics
• Classical physics (pre-1900): classical
mechanics, electromagnetism, optics,
thermodynamics
• Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): developed laws of
motion with constant acceleration
• Johannes Kepler (1571–1630): developed
empirical laws for the motions of planetary bodies
• Isaac Newton (1642–1727): developed classical
mechanics as a systematic theory and was one of
the originators of calculus
• James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879): provided a
unified theory of electromagnetism
An Invitation to Physics
• Modern physics (at the end of the 19th
century) developed because many physical
phenomena could not be explained by
classical physics
• Two most important developments:
• the theories of relativity
• quantum mechanics
An Invitation to Physics
• Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity:
• completely revolutionized the traditional concepts
of space, time, and energy
• correctly describes the motion of objects moving
at speeds comparable to the speed of light
• theory shows that the speed of light is the upper
limit of the speed of an object and that mass and
energy are related
• Quantum mechanics:
• provides descriptions of physical phenomena at
the atomic level
Theory and Experiments
• Physics—based on experimental
observations and mathematical analyses
• Main objectives:
• to develop theories that explain phenomena
• to relate theories to other established theories
• Possible to explain behavior of physical
systems using a few fundamental laws
• laws expressed in the language of mathematics
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Systéme International (SI)
• Main system used in this text
• Consists of a system of definitions and standards
to describe fundamental physical quantities
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Length is defined in terms of a meter:
• the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during
a given time
• SI unit: meter, m
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Mass is defined in terms of
the kilogram:
• based on a specific cylinder
kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and
Measures
• SI unit: kilogram, kg
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Time is defined in terms of the oscillation of
radiation from a cesium atom
• SI unit: second, s
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Two systems of units:
(1) the SI system:
• length (meter, m), mass (kilogram, kg), and time
(second, s)
(2) the U.S. customary system:
• length (foot, ft), mass (slug), and time (second, s)
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• Fundamental quantities: length, time, mass
• Derived quantities: quantities that can be
expressed as a mathematical combination of
fundamental quantities
• Examples:
• Area: a product of two lengths
• Speed: a ratio of a length to a time interval
• density: mass per unit volume:
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• The table shows the most
frequently used prefixes for
the powers of ten and their
abbreviations
• 1023 m = 1 millimeter (mm)
• 103 m = 1 kilometer (km)
• 1 kg = 103 grams (g)
• 1 megavolt (MV) = 106 volts (V)
1.2 Dimensional Analysis
• Dimension has a specific meaning:
• denotes the physical nature of a quantity

• Square brackets denote dimensions:

• Dimensions of speed v: [v] = L/T
• Dimensions of area A: [A] = L2
1.2 Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional Analysis: technique to check the
correctness of an equation or to assist in
deriving an equation
• Dimensions can be treated as algebraic
quantities:
• Quantities can be added or subtracted only if they
have the same dimensions
• Both sides of equation must have the same
dimensions
1.2 Dimensional Analysis
• Given the equation: x = ½at2
• Check dimensions on each side:

• The equation is dimensionally correct

• There are no dimensions for the constant
Example 1.1 Analysis of an Equation
Show that the expression v = at, where v
represents speed, a acceleration, and t an
instant of time, is dimensionally correct.
• Identify the dimensions of v:

• Identify the dimensions of a and multiply by the

dimensions of t:

• Equation is dimensionally correct—same

dimensions on both sides
1.3 Conversion of Units
• When units are not consistent, you may need
to convert to appropriate ones
• Units can be treated like algebraic quantities
that can cancel each other
• Always include units for every quantity, you
can carry the units through the entire
calculation
1.3 Conversion of Units
• To convert units: multiply original value by a
ratio equal to 1
• The ratio is called a conversion factor
• Example: 1 in. = 2.54 cm, convert 15.0 in. to
cm
Example 1.2 Is He Speeding?
On an interstate highway in a rural region of Wyoming,
a car is traveling at a speed of 38.0 m/s. Is the driver
exceeding the speed limit of 75.0 mi/h?
• Convert meters in the speed to miles:

• Convert seconds to hours:

• The driver is speeding.

1.4 Order of Magnitude Calculations
• Order of magnitude: an approximation using a
power of ten determined as follows:
• Express the number in scientific notation, with the
multiplier of the power of ten between 1 and 10
and a unit
• If the multiplier is less than 3.162 (square root of
ten), the order of magnitude of the number is the
power of ten in the scientific notation
• If the multiplier is greater than 3.162, the order of
magnitude is one larger than the power of ten in
the scientific notation
1.4 Order of Magnitude Calculations
• Use the symbol  for “is on the order of”
• Examples:
• 0.008 6 m  102 m
• 0.002 1 m  103 m
• 720 m  103 m
• Results of an order-of-magnitude estimate
are reliable to within about a factor of ten
• If a quantity increases in value by three orders of
magnitude, its value increases by a factor of
about 103 = 1000
Example 1.3 The Number of Atoms in a
Solid
Estimate the number of atoms in 1 cm3 of a
solid.
• The diameter d of an atom is about 1010 m
• Assume the atoms in the solid are spheres
• Then the volume of each sphere is about 10 30 m3
(more precisely, volume = 4r3/3 = d3/6)
Because 1 cm3 = 106 m3, the number of atoms
in the solid is on the order of
106/1030 =1024 atoms
Example 1.4 Breaths in a Lifetime
Estimate the number of breaths taken during an
average human lifetime.
• Find the approximate number of minutes in a
year:

• Find the approximate number of minutes in a 70-

year lifetime:

• Find the approximate number of breaths in a

lifetime:
1.5 Significant Figures
• There is uncertainty in every measurement,
this uncertainty carries over through the
calculations
• We need a technique to account for this
uncertainty
• We will use rules for significant figures to
approximate the uncertainty in results of
calculations
1.5 Significant Figures
• A significant figure is one that is reliably
known
• Zeros may or may not be significant
• Those used to position the decimal point are not
significant
• To remove ambiguity, use scientific notation
• In a measurement, the significant figures
include the first estimated digit
1.5 Significant Figures
• 0.0075 m has 2 significant figures
• The leading zeroes are placeholders only
• Can write in scientific notation to show more
clearly: 7.5×103 m for 2 significant figures
• 10.0 m has 3 significant figures
• The decimal point gives information about the
reliability of the measurement
• 1500 m is ambiguous
• Use 1.5×103 m for 2 significant figures
• Use 1.50×103 m for 3 significant figures
• Use 1.500×103 m for 4 significant figures
1.5 Significant Figures
• When multiplying or dividing, the number of
significant figures in the final answer is the
same as the number of significant figures in
the quantity having the lowest number of
significant figures
• Example: 25.57 m × 2.45 m = 62.6 m2
• The 2.45 m limits your result to 3 significant
figures
1.5 Significant Figures
• When adding or subtracting, the number of
decimal places in the result should equal the
smallest number of decimal places in any
term in the sum
• Example: 135 cm + 3.25 cm = 138 cm
• The 135 cm limits your answer to the units
decimal value
1.5 Significant Figures
• The rule for addition and subtraction are
different than the rule for multiplication and
division
• For adding and subtracting, the number of
decimal places is the important consideration
• For multiplying and dividing, the number of
significant figures is the important consideration
1.5 Significant Figures
• Rules for rounding:
• Last retained digit is increased by 1 if the last digit
dropped is 5 or above
• Last retained digit is remains as it is if the last
digit dropped is less than 5
• If the last digit dropped is equal to 5, the retained
should be rounded to the nearest even number
• Saving rounding until the final result will help
eliminate accumulation of errors
Example 1.5 Installing a Carpet
A carpet is to be installed in a rectangular room
whose length is measured to be 12.71 m and
whose width is measured to be 3.46 m. Find
the area of the room.
• Multiply 12.71 m by 3.46 m on your calculator,
you will see an answer of 43.976 6 m2
• How many of these numbers should you claim?
• Only the number of significant figures present in
the measured quantity having the lowest number
of significant figures (in this case, 3)
• final answer: 44.0 m2
1.6 Coordinate Systems
• Used to describe the position of a point in
space
• Coordinate system consists of
• A fixed reference point called the origin
• Specific axes with scales and labels
• Instructions on how to label a point relative to the
origin and the axes
1.6 Coordinate Systems
Cartesian coordinate system
(Also called rectangular coordinate system)
• x- and y-axes intersect at the origin
• Points are labeled (x,y)
1.6 Coordinate Systems
Polar coordinate system
Origin and reference line
are noted
• Point is distance r from
the origin in the
direction of angle ,
ccw from reference line
• Points are labeled (r,)
1.6 Coordinate Systems
• Form a right triangle, with
hypotenuse r

•  must be ccw from

positive x axis for these
equations to be valid
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
• A scalar is a quantity that is completely
specified by a positive or negative number
with an appropriate unit and has no direction
• Examples: temperature, volume, mass, time
intervals
• Rules of ordinary arithmetic are used to
manipulate scalar quantities
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
• A vector is a physical quantity that must be
described by a magnitude (number) and
appropriate units plus a direction
• Examples: velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
• A particle travels from A
to B (dotted red line)
• This is the distance
traveled and is a scalar
• The displacement:
solid line from A to B
• The displacement is
independent of the path
taken between the two
points
• Displacement is a
vector
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
• If a particle moves along the x axis from position xi
to position xf , its displacement is given by xf  xi
• The indices i and f refer to the initial and final values
• delta () denotes the change in a quantity
• Displacement:
• x is positive if xf is greater than xi and negative if xf is
less than xi
1.7 Vectors and Scalars
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
Equality of two vectors:
• Two vectors are equal if

they have the same

magnitude and the same
direction

• So long as the length and

orientation of a vector are
preserved, it can be
shifted from one position
to another
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
Vector addition, graphical Method:
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
• When you have
many vectors, just
keep repeating the
process until all are
included
• The resultant is still
drawn from the
origin of the first
vector to the end of
the last vector
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
• When two vectors
are added, the sum
is independent of the
order of the addition
• This is the
commutative law of
addition
•
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
• When adding three or
more vectors, their sum
is independent of the
way in which the
individual vectors are
grouped
• This is called the
Associative Property of
Addition
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
• When adding vectors, all of the vectors must
have the same units
• All of the vectors must be of the same type of
quantity
• For example, you cannot add a displacement to a
velocity
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
The negative of a vector:
• The negative of a vector is defined as the

vector that, when added to the original vector,

gives a resultant of zero

•The negative of a vector will have the same

magnitude, but point in the opposite direction
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
Subtraction of vectors:
• Special case of vector
addition:

• Continue with standard

vector addition
procedure
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar:
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors
Multiplication of two vectors:
• Two vectors can be multiplied in two different

ways:
• One is the scalar product:
• Also called the dot product
• The other is the vector product:
• Also called the cross product
• These products will be discussed as they arise
in the text
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• Components of a
vector are the
projections of the vector
along the x- and y-axes
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• The y-component is
moved to the end of
the x-component
• any vector can be
moved parallel to
itself without being
affected
• This completes the
triangle
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• The components can be positive or negative and
will have the same units as the original vector
• The signs of the components will depend on the
angle
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• The components of a vector can be expressed in
any convenient coordinate system.
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with
a magnitude of exactly 1
• Unit vectors are used to specify a direction
and have no other physical significance
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors

• They form a set of

mutually perpendicular
vectors
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit
Vectors
• The magnitude and angle of the resultant
vector can be found from:

• This can be extended to three dimensions:

Example 1.6 The Sum of Two Vectors
Find the sum of two displacement vectors given
by
• Obtain the resultant vector:

• Evaluate the components of the resultant:

• Find the magnitude:

• Find the direction:

Example 1.7 The Resultant Displacement
A particle undergoes three consecutive displacements:

• Find unit-vector notation for the resultant

displacement and its magnitude
• Add the three vectors:

• Find the magnitude of the resultant vector:

Example 1.8 Take a Hike
A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km southeast from her
car. She stops and sets up her tent for the night. On the second
day, she walks 40.0 km in a direction 60.08 north of east, at
which point she discovers a forest ranger’s tower.
(A) Determine the components of the hiker’s displacement for
each day
• Find the components of each vector:
Example 1.8 Take a Hike
(B) Determine the components of the hiker’s resultant
displacement for the trip, in terms of unit vectors.
• Find the components of the resultant vector:

• Write the total displacement in unit-vector form:

1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• A model is a simplified substitution for the
real problem that allows us to solve the
problem in a relatively simple way
• Make predictions about the behavior of the
system
• The predictions will be based on interactions among
the components
and/or
• Based on the interactions between the components
and the environment
• As long as the predictions of the model agree with the
actual behavior of the real system, the model is valid
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• The particle model allows the replacement of
an extended object with a particle which has
mass, but zero size
• Two conditions for using the particle model
are
• The size of the actual object is of no
consequence in the analysis of its motion
• Any internal processes occurring in the object are
of no consequence in the analysis of its motion
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• There are four categories of models that will
be used in this book:
• Geometric model
• Simplification model
• Analysis model
• Structural model
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Geometric model:
• Form a geometric construction that represents
the real situation
• Perform the analysis of the geometric
construction
Example 1.9 Finding the Height of a Tree
You wish to find the height of a tree but cannot
measure it directly. You stand 50.0 m from the tree
and determine that a line of sight from the ground to
the top of the tree makes an angle of 25.08° with the
ground. How tall is the tree?
• Superpose a right triangle over the sketch, and use
properties of right triangles to solve the problem:
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Simplification model:
• The details that are not significant in determining
the outcome of the problem are ignored
• The particle model is an example
• Another example is to assume friction is
negligible in many cases
• Analysis model:
• Based on general types of problems that have
been solved before
• You cast a new problem into the form of one seen
(and solved) before
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Structural model:
• Used to understand the behavior of a system that
is different in scale from our macroscopic world
• Can be used for actual systems much larger or
much smaller
• Used for systems you cannot interact with directly
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Related to modeling is that of forming
alternative representations of the problem
• A representation is a method of viewing or
presenting the information relating to the problem
• Considering alternative representations can
help you think about the information in the
problem in several different ways to help you
understand and solve it
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Mental representation:
• Imagine the scene described
• Let time progress so you understand the problem
and can make predictions about changes that will
occur over time
• A critical step in solving every problem
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Pictorial representation:
• Drawing a picture of the
situation
• The representation
describes what you would
see if you were observing
the situation described in
the problem
• Any coordinate system
included would be the x-
and y-axes
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Simplified pictorial
representation:
• Redraw the pictorial
representation without
complicating details
• Using the particle
model could be part of
the simplification
• This representation will
be used extensively
throughout the text
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Graphical representation:
• A graph can be very useful in describing a
situation
• The axes of the graph may be any two related
variables
• A graphical representation is generally not
something you would see when actually
observing the situation
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Tabular representation:
• Organizing information in a table form may make
it clearer
• Periodic table is an example
• A table of known and unknown quantities may be
helpful in solving a problem
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• Mathematical representation:
• The ultimate goal in solving problems is often the
mathematical representation
• Through various representations that help in
understanding the problem, you can arrive at the
one or more equations that represent the
situation
• The result can be solved for mathematically
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
General Problem-Solving Strategy:
1. Conceptualize
• Read the problem at least twice
• Be sure you understand the situation and the nature of
the problem
• Make a quick drawing of the situation
• This is the pictorial representation
• Generate other representations that would be helpful
• Focus on the expected result
• Think about units
• Think about what a reasonable answer should be
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
2. Categorize
• Simplify the problem
• Draw a simplified representation
• Can you ignore air resistance?
• Model objects as particles
• Classify the type of problem
• Plug-in problem—just substitute numbers
• Try to identify similar problems you have already
solved
• The analysis representation
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
3. Analyze
• Select the relevant equation(s) to apply
• Solve for the unknown variable
• Substitute appropriate numbers
• Calculate the results
• Include units
• Round the result to the appropriate number of
significant figures
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
4. Finalize
• Check your result
• Does it have the correct units?
• Does it agree with your conceptualized ideas?
• Look at limiting situations to be sure the results
are reasonable
• Compare the result with those of similar problems
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations,
and Problem-Solving Strategy
• When solving complex problems, you may
need to identify sub-problems and apply the
problem-solving strategy to each sub-part
• These steps can be a guide for solving
problems in this course