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Linear Algebra
Definition of a Matrix
If and are positive integers, then an matrix
is a rectangular array

in which each entry of the matrix is a

number.
An matrix (read “m by n”) has rows
(horizontal lines) and columns (vertical
Introduction to Matrices
lines).
Definitions
If each entry of a matrix is a real number,
then the matrix is called a real matrix.

The entry is located in the th

row and the th

column.

• The index is called the row subscript

because it identifies the row in which the
entry lies
• The index is called the column subscript

Introduction to column
because it identifies the Matrices
in which
Definitions
A matrix with rows and columns (an
matrix) is said to be of size .

If , the matrix is called square of order or .

For a square matrix, the entries are called
the main diagonal entries.

Introduction to Matrices
Example 1. Examples of Matrices
Each matrix has the indicated size:
a. size –
b. size –
c. size –
d. size –

Introduction to Matrices
One very common use of matrices is to
represent systems of linear equations.
Definition
The matrix derived from the coefficients and
constant terms of a system of linear
equations is called the augmented matrix of
the system.
Definition
The matrix containing only the coefficients
of the system is called the coefficient matrix
of the system.
Introduction to Matrices
Example

𝒂 𝒖𝒈𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙

[ ]
𝟏 −𝟒 𝟑 𝟓
−𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏 −𝟑
𝟐 𝟎 −𝟒 𝟔
Definition
There are three operations that can be used
on a system of linear equations to produce
equivalent systems:
1. Interchange two equations.
2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero
constant.
In matrix terminology these three
3. Add a multiple of an equation to another
operations correspond to elementary row
equation.
Elementary Row
operations.

Operations
Definition
Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent if
one can be obtained from the other by a
finite sequence of elementary row
operations.
Elementary Row Operations
1. Interchange two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 2. Elementary Row Operations
(a) Interchange the first and second rows

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 2. (continued)
(b) Multiply first row by to produce a new
first row

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 2. (continued)
(c) Add -2 times the first row to the third
row

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 3. Using Elementary Row
Operations to Solve a System of Linear
Equations

𝐚 𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱

[ ]
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟗
−𝟏 𝟑 𝟎 −𝟒
𝟐 −𝟓 𝟓 𝟏𝟕
Example 3. (continued)
Add the first Add the first row to
equation to the the second:
second:

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 3. (continued)
Add -2 times the first Add -2 times the first
equation to the third: row to the third:

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 3. (continued)
Add the second Add the second row
equation to the third: to the third:

Elementary Row
Operations
Example 3. (continued)
Multiply the third Multiply the third
equation by 1/2: row by 1/2:

Now you can use back-substitution to find

the solution of the original system of linear
equations: Elementary Row
, and
Operations
Definition
The last matrix in this Example is said to be
in row-echelon form.
The term “echelon” refers to the stair-step
pattern formed by the nonzero elements of
the matrix.

To be in row-echelon form, a matrix must

have the properties listed below.

Elementary Row
Operations
Definition
A matrix in row-echelon form is in reduced
row-echelon form if every column that has a
leading 1 has zeros in every position above
and below
Example 4.its leading 1. Form
Row-Echelon
The following matrices are in row-echelon
form
(a) (b)

Gaussian Elimination
Example 4. Row-Echelon Form
The following matrices are in row-echelon
form
(c)
(d)

Gaussian Elimination
The matrices shown in parts (b) and (d) are
in reduced row-echelon form.

Example 4. Row-Echelon Form

The following matrices are not in row-
echelon form
(e) (f)

It can be shown that every matrix is row-

equivalent to a matrix in row-echelon form.

Gaussian Elimination
Gaussian Elimination with Back-
Substitution
1. Write the augmented matrix of the system
of linear equations.

2. Use elementary row operations to rewrite

the augmented matrix in row-echelon form.

3. Write the system of linear equations

corresponding to the matrix in row-echelon
form, and use back-substitution to find the
solution.
Gaussian Elimination
Remark
Gaussian elimination with back-substitution
works well as an algorithmic method for
solving systems of linear equations.

For this algorithm, the order in which the

elementary row operations are performed is
important.
Move from left to right by columns,
changing all entries directly below the
leading 1’s to zeros.
Gaussian Elimination
Example 5. Gaussian Elimination with Back-
Substitution

Solve the system

Solution
The augmented matrix for the system is
Solution (continued)
Obtain a leading 1 in the upper left corner
and zeros elsewhere in the first column:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
Turn the first element in the third row to 0:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
Turn the first element in the fourth row to 0:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
Now that the first column is in the desired
form, you should change the second column
as follows:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
Turn the third element in the third row to 1:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
Turn the fourth element in the fourth row to
1:

Gaussian Elimination
Solution (continued)
The matrix is now in row-echelon form, and
the corresponding system of linear
equations is as shown below:

Using back-substitution, you can determine

the solution:
Remark
When solving a system of linear equations,
remember that it is possible for the system
to have no solution.
So, how do you ascertain the fact that the
system has no solution?

If during the elimination process you obtain

a row with all zeros except for the last entry,
it is unnecessary to continue the elimination
process – you can simply conclude that the
system is inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 5. A System with No Solution
Solve the system:

Solution
The augmented matrix for this system is
Solution (continued)
Apply Gaussian elimination procedure to the
augmented matrix. ***

Note that the third row of this matrix

consists of all zeros except for the last entry.

This means that the original system of

linear equations is inconsistent.
Solution (continued)
You can see why this is true by converting
back to a system of linear equations:

Because the third “equation” is a false

statement, it follows that the system has no
solution.
A second method of elimination, called
Gauss-Jordan elimination after Carl Gauss
(1777–1855) and Wilhelm Jordan (1842–
1899), continues the reduction process until
Example
a reduced7.row-echelon
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
form is obtained.
Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the
system:

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
If you apply Gaussian elimination to this
system, you will obtain the following row-
echelon form:

Now, rather than using back-substitution,

apply elementary row operations until you
obtain a matrix in reduced row-echelon
form.
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
To do this, you must produce zeros above
each of the leading 1’s, as follows.

Adding 2 times the second row to the first

row produces a new first row:

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
Adding -3 times the third row to the second
row produces a new second row:

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
Adding -9 times the third row to the first
row produces a new first row:

Now, converting back to a system of linear

equations, you have:

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Remark
Both the Gaussian and Gauss-Jordan
elimination procedures employ an
algorithmic approach easily adapted to
computer use.
The next example demonstrates how Gauss-
Jordan elimination can be used to solve a
system with an infinite number of solutions.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Example 8. A system with an Infinite
Number of Solutions
Solve the system of linear equations

Solution
The augmented matrix of the system of
linear equations is

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
Using Gauss-Jordan elimination, you can
verify that the reduced row-echelon form of
the matrix is

The corresponding system of equations is

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solution (continued)
Now, using the parameter to represent the
non-leading variable , you have

where is any real number.

You have looked at two elimination methods
for solving a system of linear equations.
Which is better?
To some degree the answer depends on
personal preference.

In real-life applications of linear algebra,

systems of linear equations are usually
solved by computer.
Most computer programs use a form of
Gaussian elimination, with special emphasis
on ways to reduce rounding errors and
Which
minimize storage of is Better?
data.
Definition

Systems of linear equations in which each of

the constant terms is zero are called
homogeneous systems:

Homogeneous Systems of
Linear Equations
Remark
It is easy to see that a homogeneous system
must have at least one solution.
Specifically, if all variables in a
homogeneous system have the value zero,
then each of the equations must be satisfied.
Such a solution is called trivial (or obvious).

Homogeneous Systems of
Linear Equations
Example 9. Solving a Homogeneous System
of Linear Equations
Solve the system of linear equations

Solution
Apply Gauss-Jordan elimination to the
augmented matrix

Homogeneous Systems of
Linear Equations
Solution (continued)
We obtain the following modified matrix:

The system of equations corresponding to

this matrix is

Homogeneous Systems of
Linear Equations
Solution (continued)
Using the parameter , the solution set is

where is any real number.

This system of equations has an infinite

number of solutions, one of which is the
trivial solution (given ).

Homogeneous Systems of
Linear Equations
Theorem 1. The Number of Solutions of a
Homogeneous System
Every homogeneous system of linear
equations is consistent.
Moreover, if the system has fewer equations
than variables, then it must have an infinite
number of solutions.
Thank You for
Attention