BIOL 103

Module 3
Cell Structure and Function

1
Part 1 – Cell Types and
Structure

2
All Life is Cellular
• Cells are the fundamental unit of life (all living
things are composed of cells and cells create more
cells)
• Cells on Earth are diverse in shape and function
• Yet, all cells have four major features in common...

3
(a) Nasal sinus cells (b) onion cells and (c) Vibrio tasmaniensis bacterial cells
All Cells Have Four Basic
Features
1. All cells are bound by a thin plasma membrane
2. All cells contain cytoplasm in which cellular
components are suspended
3. All cells possess DNA (genetic information)
4. All cells possess ribosomes (assemble proteins)

4
Cells are Either Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
• Prokaryotic (“before nucleus”) cells are smaller and
simpler, lack a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed
organelles
• Eukaryotic (“true nucleus”) cells are larger and more
complex, have membrane-enclosed organelles including
a nucleus

5
Cellular Life is Divided into
Domains
• Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea are prokaryotic
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms
• Plants, animals, fungi, protists

6
Prokaryotic Cells are Small and
Simple
• Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms
• Possess the four features of a cell, not much else
• Lack a nucleus; DNA is coiled in nucleoid space
• May have other useful structures like cell wall,
capsule, pili, or flagella

7
Eukaryotic Cells are Large and
Complex
• Eukaryotes may be
unicellular or multicellular
• Eukaryotes possess
complex organelles
• Eukaryotes have a large,
prominent nucleus which
contains chromosomes
(DNA)

8
Eukaryotic
Organelles Overview

9
Plasma Membrane is a
Barrier
• The plasma membrane is a
bilayer of phospholipids
that surrounds the cell,
with embedded proteins,
carbohydrates, and
cholesterol molecules
• Membrane is semi-
permeable: regulates
passage of substances
in/out of cell

10
Cytoplasm is Inner
Fluid/Gel
• Cytoplasm is the inner
contents of the cell and is
made up of proteins, sugars,
nucleic acids, lipids, ions, and
water

• Cytoplasm is the location of

metabolic reactions and
provides fluidity and rigidity
for cell

11
Cytoskeleton Provides
Structure
• The cytoskeleton is a network of
protein fibers (microfilaments
and microtubules) found within
and outside the cell
• Cytoskeleton functions:
• Maintains cellular shape
• Anchors organelles
• Allows vesicles to move within cell
• Cellular division
• Cellular movement (flagella, cilia)

12
Cytoskeleton cont’d
Centrosome Aids in Cellular
Division
• Centrosomes are a part of
the cytoskeleton

• Composed of two
centrioles, cylinders made of
protein microtubules

• Centrosome is involved in
cell division

14
Flagella are Used for
Movement
• Flagella (Singular- flagellum) are
part of the cytoskeleton that
extend outside of cell

• Single long protein-based

structure, used for movement

• Flagella propel cells with a

whip-like motion

15
Cilia are Used for Co-ordinated
Movement
• Cilia (Singular- cilium) are part
of the cytoskeleton that also
protrude from cell
• Many short protein fibers along
plasma membrane
• Move in a coordinated back-
and-forth motion to propel cell
or trapped particles
• Cilia also used for sensing
environment (ear canals!)
16
Ribosomes Build Proteins
• Ribosomes are large Ribosome
protein complexes found in
cytoplasm and on rough ER
mRNA

Protein
• Ribosomes co-ordinate the
assembly of proteins (site
of protein synthesis)

17
Nucleus Stores and
Protects DNA
• Nuclei (plural for nucleus) are large organelles
with special membrane (nuclear envelope)
• Nuclear pores allow for movement in/out of
nucleus (except DNA, which is protected inside)
• Dark patch in nucleus is the nucleolus, site of
ribosome synthesis

18
Endomembrane Systems Attach to
Nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells have a series of
organelles that make up the
endomembrane system
• Components are continuous or
connected via vesicles
• This system regulates protein
production/traffic and
performs metabolic functions
in the cell

19
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Biosynthesizes
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is major component of
endomembrane system
• Series of membranous tubes continuous with nuclear
envelope that can be smooth (no ribosomes) or rough
(studded with ribosomes)

20
Smooth ER Synthesizes
Lipids
• Smooth ER is series of membranous tubes near nucleus
that lacks ribosomes
• Synthesizes lipids, helps detoxify cell, stores and
metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins
• Convoluted, reticular nature = increased surface area!

21
 Rough ER Modifies Proteins
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranous tubes surrounding nucleus, studded
with ribosomes
• Rough ER receives polypeptide chains from
ribosomes, folds/cuts/stores them for future use

Ribosome
Rough ER
Protein
Ribosomes Rough ER
22
Golgi Apparatus Refines
Products
• Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened membrane
sacs near ER
• Golgi receives, refines, stores, and distributes
products received from smooth and rough ER
• Some products transported throughout cell, others
fuse with plasma membrane and release contents
outside of cell

23
Vesicles and Vacuoles Move
Products
• Vesicles and vacuoles are
membranous sacs that
bud from ER, Golgi, or
plasma membrane
• Store and transport
proteins, ions, lipids,
toxins, water, etc.
• Vesicles are smaller than
vacuoles

24
Lysosomes Digest
Contents
• Lysosomes are specialized vesicles filled with
digestive enzymes
• Digestive enzymes break down molecules
• Lysosomes help destroy harmful bacteria and
break down damaged organelles

25
26
Mitochondria Synthesize
ATP
• Mitochondria (singular-
mitochondrion) are bean-
shaped organelles with their
own DNA and membranes
• Mitochondria conduct cellular
respiration, converting chemical
energy (simple sugars) into
cellular energy (ATP)
• "POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL“
• Try to be more specific when
providing the function of
mitochondria! 27
Extracellular Matrix Provides External
Support
• In multicellular organisms, cells directly interact
with one another via their outer extracellular
matrix (ECM)
• ECM is made up of a secreted ground substance
(can be liquid, gel-like, or solid) and protein fibers
• Anchors cells together,
allows for communication

28
 Animal Cell Junctions – 1 of
3
• Tight Junctions:
• Interlocking proteins
connect adjacent
plasma membranes
• Creates water-tight
seal to prevent
leakage
• E.g. organ linings,
skin
 Animal Cell Junctions – 2 of
3
• Desmosomes:
• Deeply interlocking
intermediate
filaments of
adjacent cells
• Found in areas
prone to mechanical
stress
• E.g. heart, muscle,
skin, uterus, bladder
 Animal Cell Junctions – 3 of
3
• Gap Junctions:
• Protein-lined
channels that allow
adjacent cells to
communicate
• Small nutrients,
ions, etc. can flow
cell to cell
• E.g. placenta, nerves
 Plant Cells Have Unique
Organelles
• Most plant cells lack
lysosomes and centrioles

• Plant cells uniquely

possess:
• Cell wall
• Chloroplasts
• Central vacuoles
• Plasmodesmata
• Specialized communication
channels

32
Cell Walls Give Plant
Structure
• Cell walls are rigid structures made of cellulose
that surround the plasma membrane
• Cell walls offer protection (hard to digest) and
maintain cell shape (strong)

33
Central Vacuoles Store
Water
• Central vacuoles occupy
most of plant cell (often
pushes other organelles
to the sides)
• Central vacuoles store water,
provide turgor pressure and
maintain shape
• Will shrink/grow depending
on water concentration of
environment

34
Chloroplasts Synthesize
Glucose
• Chloroplasts are double-membraned organelles
with many small membranous sacs within
• Chloroplasts contain green pigment called
chlorophyll
• Chloroplasts transform solar energy into chemical
energy (glucose) via photosynthesis

35
Part 2 – Membranes &
Transport

36
Plasma Membrane is a Fluid
Mosaic
• Membrane can be described as a fluid mosaic:
• Mosaic refers to the various component found within it
• phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol
• Fluidity refers to how these molecules can change position
within membrane while still maintaining integrity

37
Phospholipids are Primary
Component
• Phospholipids make up the
majority of the plasma
membrane

• Phospholipids are
amphipathic:
• Phosphate head is polar
• Two fatty acid tails are non-
polar

38
Phospholipids are Arranged in a
Bilayer
• Phosphate heads will interact
with aqueous (polar)
fluid inside and outside cell
• One layer faces out, while
another layer faces in
• Fatty acid tails will sit
between these layers, facing
inward (hydrophobic)
• This forms a phospholipid
bilayer
39
Proteins are Found Throughout the
Bilayer
• Proteins are attached to inside, outside, or
embedded within membrane
• Proteins have a wide range of functions (see image)
• Antigens are proteins on the outside of a
membrane that can be recognized by other cells

40
Carbohydrates are on Outside of
Membrane
• Carbohydrates are found on outside of membrane
• Form specialized sites for cell-cell recognition
• Bound to proteins to form glycoproteins or lipids
to form glycolipids

41
Cholesterol is Embedded
within Membrane
• Animal membranes may have cholesterol (lipid)
embedded within them
• Amount of cholesterol regulates fluidity of
membrane, keeping it fluid even as the
temperature decreases

42
Plasma Membrane is
Selectively Permeable
• The plasma membrane can allow certain substances to
enter/exit while preventing others
• Hydrophobic fatty acids of phospholipid bilayer allow lipid-
soluble and non-polar materials to travel easily
• E.g., fat soluble vitamins, hormones, drugs
• Polar molecules and ions are repelled by fatty acid chains
of phospholipids, need aid to travel in/out of cell

43
Passive Transport Requires No
Energy
• Passive transport is when a substance moves
across the membrane without the cell using energy
• Substance moves DOWN its concentration gradient
• May be facilitated by proteins depending on size,
charge

44
Simple Diffusion Occurs Passively

• Simple diffusion is when a substance moves from

an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the concentration is equal
(DOWN concentration gradient)
• No assistance or energy is needed
• Non-polar, uncharged small particles enter/exit the
cell this way

45
Some Factors Affect Diffusion
Rate
• The extent of the concentration gradient
• The greater the difference, the faster the diffusion rate
• The mass of the particles diffusing
• The smaller the particle, the faster the diffusion rate
• The temperature
• The higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion rate
• The density of the solvent
• The denser the solvent, the slower the diffusion rate

46
Facilitated Diffusion Occurs Passively
(with Help)
• Facilitated diffusion is when substances travel
down their concentration gradient with assistance
of proteins within the membrane
• Still no energy spent by the cell, but special path is
needed
• Polar, charged, and larger molecules enter/exit this
way

47
Osmosis is the Passive Transport
of Water
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water down its
concentration gradient across a plasma membrane
• Water will move from a more diluted solution
(more water) to a less diluted solution (less water)
if the solute itself cannot move

48
Water Moves Towards Higher
Tonicity
• Tonicity is the amount of solutes in a solution

• When comparing the tonicity of one solution

to another, relative terms are used:
• Hypertonic: higher concentration of solute
• Hypotonic: lower concentration of solute
• Isotonic: equal concentration of solute

• Water will move from an area of low solute (high

water) to an area of high solute (low water)
49
Water Moves Towards Hypertonic
Solutions
• Water will move down its concentration gradient
towards a higher tonicity
• If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, there are
more solutes outside of the cell than inside
• Water will therefore LEAVE the cell and the cell will
shrink, losing both volume and mass

50
Water Moves In/Out of Isotonic
Solutions
• Water will move equally in both directions if
solutions are of the same tonicity
• If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there is
approximately the same concentration of solutes
outside the cell as inside
• Water will slowly move back and forth across the
membrane, maintaining the cell shape

51
Water Will Leave Hypotonic
Solutions
• Water will move down its concentration gradient
away from a lower tonicity
• If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, there are
fewer solutes outside of the cell than inside
• Water will ENTER the cell and the cell will increase
in volume and mass

52
Active Transport Requires Energy

• Active transport is when the cell needs to expend

energy (ATP) to transport substances
• Substances may be travelling UP their
concentration gradient or may need to be engulfed
by membrane, both of which require energy
Lower solute concentration

Solute

ATP
Higher solute concentration
53
Active Transport Maintains Concentration
Gradient

• Active transport can push substances up their

concentration gradient
• Pump or carrier proteins in the membrane use ATP
(cellular energy) to push the substance across
• For example, the Na + /K+ pump

54
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Passive Transport Active Transport

(requires no energy) (requires energy)

Diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis

Higher water concentration Higher solute
Higher solute concentration
(lower solute concentration) concentration

Solute
Solute

Solute

Water

Solute
ATP
Lower solute concentration Lower water concentration Lower solute
(higher solute concentration) concentration

55
Endocytosis Brings Particles In

• Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves

particles into the cell
• The membrane invaginates (folds), forming a pocket
around the particle
• The newly created vesicle enters the cell

56
Endocytosis has 3 Subtypes

• Phagocytosis (cell eating): engulfing large particles

• E.g., white blood cells enveloping bacteria
• Pinocytosis (cell drinking): engulfing small particles
• E.g., salt (NaCl)
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis: target binds to
receptors, initiating endocytosis
• E.g., pulling in cholesterol from blood stream, virus entry

57
Exocytosis Sends Particles Out
• Exocytosis: cell expels particles using vesicles
• Vesicles from within cell (formed from Golgi or ER)
fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their
contents out of cell
• E.g., secretion of antibodies, release of
neurotransmitters from nerve cells

58
Summary of Cell Transport
Part 3 – Enzymes

60
Life is a Series of Chemical
Reactions
• Chemical reactions are
constantly taking place
inside a cell

• Some reactions release

energy, while others
absorb energy

• A cell’s metabolism is the

sum of these reactions
61
Molecules are Constantly being Broken
and Built
• A cell is constantly building and breaking molecules
• Anabolic pathways build polymers; require energy
• Catabolic pathways break polymers; release energy

62
Note: Reactants Lead to
Products
• Chemical reactions are often written as:
Reactants → Products

• Reactants are the chemicals required

• Products are the chemicals produced
• Atoms are rearranged into new compounds, either
storing or releasing energy in the process

63
 Note: Energy is the Ability to do
Work
• Energy can be in different forms, e.g.:
• Kinetic energy (movement of particles)
• Relates to heat/temperature
• Potential energy (stored energy)
• Relates to energy stored in matter
• E.g. chemical bonds (also called chemical energy)

64
Exergonic Reactions Release
Energy
• Exergonic reactions release energy that has been
stored in chemical bonds of reactants
• Products have less stored energy than reactants
and free energy is produced

65
Endergonic Reactions Absorb
Energy
• Endergonic reactions absorb energy and store it in
chemical bonds of the products as potential energy
• Products have more stored energy than reactants

66
ATP is Cell Energy
• ATP = adenosine triphosphate
• Adenine (base) + Sugar + 3 Phosphates
• Energy currency of the cell – stores energy and
releases it when needed
• Powers almost all cellular work (transport,
mechanical, and chemical)
• Created by phosphorylation of ADP during cellular
respiration (more in Cellular Respiration module)
• Loss of P group releases energy, reforms ADP
• See image on next slide
 ATP is Used for Cellular
Work
• Breakdown of ATP is EXERGONIC -> energy released fuels
ENDERGONIC reactions (and vice versa)
• Cellular work expends ATP continuously and it is regenerated
continuously by addition of P group to ADP in cellular respiration
• A working muscle cell expends and regenerates up to 10 million
ATP molecules per second!

ATP

Cellular respiration: Energy for

chemical energy cellular work
harvested from ADP P
fuel molecules
Activation Energy Initiates Chemical
Reactions
• In all chemical reactions, some energy input is
required (this is called activation energy)

70
Enzymes Lower Activation Energy
Requirement
• Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (speed
up) biochemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required (but do not change the
reaction from endergonic to exergonic!)

71
Enzymes Bind to Reactants
(Substrates)
• An enzyme will bind to the chemical reactants
(called substrates) at a special region called its
active site
• This binding forms an enzyme-substrate complex

72
Enzymes Speed up Chemical
Reactions
• Enzymes speed up reactions in the following ways:
• Physically bringing reactants together
• Breaking bond structures in reactants
• Taking part in the reaction itself
• Once the reaction is finished, the enzyme remains
unchanged and may continue to catalyze more
reactions

73
Enzymes can be Regulated

• As a protein, an enzyme's shape (usually

quaternary structure) will impact its function
• If an enzyme is misfolded or unravelled, its active
site will not allow for substrate(s) to bind
• The body can regulate enzyme activity by changing
the temperature and/or pH of the environment

74
Enzymes have Optimal pH for
Activity
• The concentration of H+ in a solution can change
the chemical bonds in a protein’s amino acid chain
• A change in the active site of an enzyme leads to a
change in the enzyme’s activity
• Enzymes have specific optimal pH ranges

75
Denaturing Enzymes Reduces
Activity
• If the bonds in a protein are broken too severely,
the protein denatures
• A denatured enzyme no longer has a properly
working active site, so it cannot bind to its
substrate

76
Inhibitors Prevent Enzyme Action
• Molecules called inhibitors can bind to enzymes to block
or reduce action
• Competitive inhibitors bind directly to enzyme’s active site,
blocking binding of substrate completely
• Non-competitive inhibitors bind to enzyme
in allosteric site (not active site), reducing rate of reaction

77
Penicillin is an Inhibitor for Bacterial
Enzyme
• Penicillin is a
compound produced
by fungi
• Competitive inhibitor
for bacterial enzyme
used to create cell
walls
• Used as an antibiotic
to treat bacterial
infections

78
Practice Questions
1. What are two differences between passive and
active transport?

2. What form of transport would you use if you

wanted to STRENGTHEN or BUILD a concentration
gradient across the cell membrane?

3. What do phagocytosis and pinocytosis have in

common? What is different?

79
Practice Questions
1. How do anabolic and catabolic reactions relate to
exergonic and endergonic reactions?

2. How do enzymes impact the energy required for

biological reactions?

3. Name three ways we can modify an enzyme’s

action by changing its shape

80