CELL STRUCTURE

OBJECTIVES

• Define biology
• Define a cell
• Know cell theory
• Define organelles
• Know the different organelles and their functions
DEFINITION

• Biology is the study of life and living organisms.

• The word itself is derived from the Greek words
“BIOS” =life and “LOGOS”= study or knowledge,
hence biology being the “science of life” or the study
of life.
It englobes
• The cellular basis of living organisms
• The energy metabolism that underlines the
activities of life
• The genetic basis for inheritance in organisms
 All living organismes have common characteristics
such as feeding, transferring, respirating,excreting,
motion,sention and reproduction.

 Some living organisms are unicellular

( bacteria,paramecium, amoeba etc) while most of
them are multicellular ( whales, dolphins, humans,
cats, dogs, plants).
 CELL THEORY

The cell theory describes the basic principles

which surround and govern all cells of all living
organisms irrespective of their internal features and
differences, and this theory forms the basis and
foundation of modern cell biology today.
• More than 300 years ago, no knowledge existed about the fundamental unit
of living things. The invention of the microscope and the results of
observational studies that followed resulted in a plethora of information that
proved that all living things are made up of millions of tiny fundamental
units that are vital to life itself.
• All living organisms on the planet are made up of tiny individual units.
Without these units, living organisms cannot function the way they do now.
These individual building blocks of every living organism are known as cells.
• The cell theory is one of the most fundamental principles of biology. The
German scientists Matthias Schleiden, and Theodor Schwann proposed the
cell theory.
• All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The modern version of the cell theory also includes the following
concepts:
• Energy flow occurs within cells.
• Hereditary information or DNA is passed on from cell to cell.
• All cells have the same basic composition.
A few exceptions to the cell theory exist. These are:
• Viruses are considered to be non-living because they
cannot replicate or reproduce, despite having their genetic
material.
• The very first cell did not arise from a precursor cell.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts, although present within
the cell, have their own genetic material and can reproduce
independently from the cell that they are present in.
 THE CELL
• The word « cell » comes from a latin word « cella » which means
small room.
• A cell is the tiniest building unit in an organism’s body and is
capable of carrying out all life’s functions.
• It is a rigid, semi permeable protective layer found in some cell
types.
• It is pitted and is mainly composed of cellulose fibres, resulting
in the easy passage of water and dissolved substances.
Cells vary in shape, structure and size.
There is a relationship between the cell shape and the
functions it performs.
The functions of the cell wall include:
protection
support
withstanding turgor pressure
storage
regulate diffusion
regulate growth
It is made up of a protoplasmic mass surrounded by the cell
membrane.
The protoplasm is differentiated into a nucleus and cytoplasm
The cytoplasm contains a group of cellular structures called cell
organelles.
Plants, algae, fungi, and some bacterial cells are surrounded by a cell
wall and a cell membrane.
This wall provides the cell with structure, support as well as
protection.
THE CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA
MEMBRANE
• This membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell, enclosing its contents.
• It is a thin covering that separates the cell’s components from its surrounding
medium.
• It plays a basic role in organizing the passage of substances to and from the cell.
• It also prevents the spreading of cytoplasm outside the cell.
• It is Double-layered (bi-layer)
• In plants and bacteria, it is within the cell wall.
 CYTOPLASM

Gel-like mixture inside cells.

Surrounded by cell membrane.
Composed mainly of water, some organic and inorganic substances.
Contains cell structure(organelles) that carry out specific jobs ex.
Mitochondrion, nucleus.
Contains a network of threads and microtubules that help maintain the
cells sharp.
Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place.
THE CYTOSKELETON

• A network of protein fibres that helps to maintain the shape of the

cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions
• It allows the cytoplasm and vesicles to move the cells and enables
unicellular organisms to move independently
• Three types of fibres within the cytoskeleton, Microfilaments(actin
fibres), intermediate filaments and microtubules.
 THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

• Endomembrane system (endo=within) is a group of membranes and

organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify package and
transport lipids and proteins.
• It includes the Nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, the ER and GA.
• The plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system although
its not technically within the cell but interacts with the organelles within
the system.
ORGANELLES
 THE NUCLEUS
• The nucleus is the most prominent organelle in the cell that you can see
under a microscope.
• It often has a spherical or oval shape and is usually located in the middle
of the cell.
• It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
• This envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
• It has several tiny pores through which substances pass between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
A series of interconnected membranous
tubules that collectively modify proteins
and synthesize lipids.
Endoplasmic reticula synthesize and
process proteins by sorting, adding sugar
chains, and providing other modifications.
 Such endoplasmic reticula have a
ribosome-rich surface and are called
rough endoplasmic reticula.
Those without attached ribosomes are
known as smooth endoplasmic reticula.
Endoplasmic reticula are connected to the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope and form a mesh-like structure consisting of a stack of flattened
membrane structures.
GOLGI COMPLEX
Golgi apparatuses are located near the
endoplasmic reticula,
Modifying, sorting, and packaging
secretory proteins.
Specialised for receiving the molecules
of substances secreted by the ER across
a group of transporting vesicles.
They then classify and modify these
vesicles and distribute them into places
within the cell where they are used.
 ENDOSOMES AND LYSOSOMES
Endosomes and lysosomes play a role in the
incorporation and digestion of extracellular
materials.
Part of the membrane invaginates and
pinches off to form an endosome inside the
cell. This process is called endocytosis.
Endocytosed proteins and lipids are
transported to organelles after being sorted
within endosomes or digested within
lysosomes.
Plant vacuoles have functions similar to
those of lysosomes, and regulate cell turgor.
 Lysosomes contain enzymes that digest nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, and
the interior of lysosomes is kept acidic (pH 5) by proton pumps.
 VESICLES AND VACUOLES
• These are membranous organelles that function in storage and transport.
• They store water, nutrients, and waste materials of the cell until it gets
rid of them.
• Vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, the membrane of the
vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of other cellular components.
• They are small or large in number in animal cells, while they are
collected in one big vacuole or more in plant cells.
RIBOSOMES
 Each cell contains thousands
Make proteins and directly release in the
cytoplasm
Found on endoplasmic reticulum &
floating throughout the cell cytoplasm
They are found in every cell because
protein synthesis is essential for all cells.
They are smaller in prokaryotic cells
The location of the ribosomes in a cell determines what kind of protein it makes. If the
ribosomes are floating freely throughout the cell, it will make proteins that will be utilized
within the cell itself. When ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, it is
referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum or rough ER. Proteins made on the rough ER are
used for usage inside the cell or outside the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA (SINGULAR= MITOCHONDRION)
• These are sac like membranous organelles.
• Their walls consist of two membranes
• A group of folds called cristae that extend from the inner membrane into the
matrix.  Considered as the main
storehouse/powerhouse for
respiratory enzymes in the cells.
 Energy resulting from
respiration is stored in the form
of a chemical compound called
ATP.
CENTROSOME

Made of two
centrioles( microtubule
rings).
Their role is to organize
microtubules and provide
structure for the cell, as well
as work to pull chromatids
apart during cell division.
PEROXISOMES

• small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes.

• They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids
and amino acids.
• They also detoxify many poisons that may have entered the
body.
• Eg alcohol is detoxified by the peroxisomes in liver cells.
ANIMAL CELLS VERSUS PLANT CELLS

• Despite their fundamental similarities there are some striking

differences between the two.
• Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes and lysosomes whereas
plant cells do not.
• Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata and plastids
used for storage and large central vacuole whereas animal cells do not.
 PLASTIDS
• They are present in plant cells only.
• They carry various shapes.
• There are three types that differe from each other in regard to the
pigment present in each.

1. White plastids or Leucoplasts

2. Chromoplasts
3. chloroplasts
CHLOROPLAST
• It occurs in only algal and plant cells.
• The derivation of the word is from the Greek
language. The word Chloros means ‘green’,
and plast means ‘formed’.
• These are organelles that conduct
photosynthesis.
• In vascular plants and green algae, there is a
stacking of thylakoids on top of one another.
• Furthermore, granum (plural: grana) is a stack
of thylakoids.

• The thylakoids involve chlorophylls and

carotenoids, and light is absorbed by these
pigments during photosynthesis.
THANK YOU