Chapter 1

Introduction to Heat Transfer

02/14/25Chapter 1 1
 Introduction
Thermodynamics:
• Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings.
• A system interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work and heat
• Deals with equilibrium states
• Does not give information about:
– Rates at which energy is transferred
– Mechanisms through with energy is transferred

In this chapter we will learn

 What is heat transfer
 How is heat transferred
 Relevance and importance

02/14/25Chapter 1 2
 Definitions
• Heat transfer is thermal energy transfer that is induced by
a temperature difference (or gradient)

Modes of heat transfer

• Conduction heat transfer: Occurs when a temperature gradient exists
through a solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or gas).

• Convection heat transfer: Occurs within a moving fluid, or between a

solid surface and a moving fluid, when they are at different
temperatures

• Thermal radiation: Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in
contact), often in the absence of an intervening medium.

02/14/25Chapter 1 3
 Example: Design of a container
A closed container filled with hot coffee is in a room whose air and
walls are at a fixed temperature. Identify all heat transfer processes
that contribute to cooling of the coffee. Comment on features that
would contribute to a superior container design.

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 1. Conduction
Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles
of a substance by collisions between atoms and/or molecules.
 Atomic and molecular activity – random molecular motion (diffusion)

T1
T1>T2

xo qx”

T2 T2
x

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 1. Conduction
Consider a brick wall, of thickness L=0.3 m which in a cold winter day
is exposed to a constant inside temperature, T1=20°C and a constant
outside temperature, T2=-20°C.
 Under steady-state conditions
the temperature varies linearly
Wall Area, A as a function of x.
T1=20°C qx”  The rate of conductive heat
transfer in the x-direction
depends on
T T2= -20°C

x L=0.3 m
T1  T2
q"x 
L
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 1. Conduction
• The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal
conductivity k (units W/m.K)
T1  T2 T
q"x k k
L L
• For the brick wall, k=0.72 W/m.K (assumed constant), therefore
qx”= 96 W/m2
 How would this value change if instead of the brick wall we had a
piece of polyurethane insulating foam of the same dimensions?
(k=0.026 W/m.K)
 qx” is the heat flux (units W/m2 or (J/s)/m2), which is the heat transfer
rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
transfer.
 The heat rate, qx (units W=J/s) through a plane wall of area A is the
product of the flux and the area: qx= qx”. A
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 1. Conduction
• In the general case the rate of heat transfer in the x-direction is
expressed in terms of the Fourier law:

dT T1(high)
q"x  k qx”
dx
• Minus sign because heat flows from T2 (low)
high to low T
 For a linear profile x1 x2
x
dT (T2  T1 )
 0
dx ( x2  x1 )

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 2. Convection
Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in conduction) plus
bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
– Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk motion
of fluid.
– Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion.

 Forced convection: Caused by external means

 Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising
from density differences arising from temperature variations in the
fluid

The above cases involve sensible heat (internal energy) of the fluid
 Latent heat exchange is associated with phase changes – boiling and
condensation.

02/14/25Chapter 1 9
 2. Convection
Air at 20°C blows over a hot plate, which is maintained at a
temperature Ts=300°C and has dimensions 20x40 cm.

T 20 C
Air
q”
TS 300 C

The convective heat flux is proportional to

q"x  TS  T

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 2. Convection
• The proportionality constant is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
h (W/m2.K)

q"x h(TS  T ) Newton’s law of Cooling

• For air h=25 W/m2.K, therefore the heat flux is qx”= 7,000 W/m2
 How would this value change if instead of blowing air we had still air (h=5
W/m2.K) or flowing water (h=50 W/m2.K)
• The heat rate, is qx= qx”. A = qx”. (0.2 x 0.4) = 560 W.
• The heat transfer coefficient depends on surface geometry, nature of
the fluid motion, as well as fluid properties. For typical ranges of
values, see Table 1.1 textbook.
• In this solution we assumed that heat flux is positive when heat is
transferred from the surface to the fluid

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 3. Radiation
• Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter
• Energy is transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons).
• Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.
• Dos not require presence of a medium

Surroundings at Tsur  Emissive power E is the

radiation emitted by the
surface
"
qincident G qemitted
"
E  Irradiation G is the rate of
incident radiation per unit
area of the surface,
originating from its
surroundings

Surface at Ts
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 3. Radiation
• For an ideal radiator, or blackbody:


qemitted Eb Ts4 Stefan-Boltzmann law
where Ts is the absolute temperature of the surface (K) and  is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, ( = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4)
• For a real surface:
"
qemitted E Ts4  is the emissivity 0  1
• The irradiation G, originating from the surroundings is:

" 4  is the absorptivity 0 a

qincident G Tsur 1
For a “grey” surface, =

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 3. Radiation
• The net radiation heat transfer from the surface, per unit area is

"
qrad (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
• The net radiation heat exchange can be also expressed in the form:

qrad hr A(Ts  Tsur ) where hr (Ts  Tsur )(Ts2  Tsur

2
)

02/14/25Chapter 1 14
 Example 1
Satellites and spacecrafts are exposed to extremely high radiant
energy from the sun. Propose a method to dissipate the heat, so that
the surface temperature of a spacecraft in orbit can be maintained to
300 K.

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 Example 2
On a hot summer day you place a black, metal disk on the ground.
Assuming that the bottom surface of the disk is insulated by the
ground, calculate the temperature of the plate when the heat
absorbed equals the heat lost.

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 Quiz: Heat Transfer Processes

Identify the heat transfer processes that determine the temperature of

an asphalt pavement on a summer day

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 Quiz: Heat Transfer Processes
Identify the heat transfer processes that occur on your forearm, when
you are wearing a short-sleeved shirt, while you are sitting in a room.
Suppose you maintain the thermostat of your home at 15°C
throughout the winter months. You are able to tolerate this if the
outside air temperature exceedes –10°C, but feel cold if the
temperature becomes lower. Are you imagining things?

02/14/25Chapter 1 18
 Conservation of Energy
Surroundings, S

-Accumulation
Control Volume (Storage) E st
(CV) Addition -Generation E g
Loss
through inlet through outlet
Boundary, B
(Control Surface, CS) E in E out

• Energy conservation on a rate basis:

E  E  E  dE st E
in g out st
dt
Units W=J/s

 Inflow and outflow are surface phenomena

 Generation and accumulation are volumetric phenomena

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 Steady-Flow Energy Equation
• For an open system mass flow provides for the transport of internal,
kinetic and potential energy into and out of the system
• The work term is divided in two contributions: Flow work, associated
to pressure forces (=p, where is the specific volume) and work
done by the system.

 V2   V2 
m i  u  p  g z   m out  u  p  g z  
 2 i  2  out
 q  W 0

Recall: m VAc Mass flow rate (kg/s)

 VA  m Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

c

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 Example (Problem 1.36 textbook)
In an orbiting space station, an electronic package is housed in a
compartment having a surface area As=1 m2, which is exposed to space.
Under normal operating conditions, the electronics dissipate 1kW, all of
which must be transferred from the exposed surface to space.
(a) If the surface emissivity is 1.0 and the surface is not exposed to the
sun, what is its steady-state temperature?
(b) If the surface is exposed to a solar flux of 750 W/m2 and its absorptivity
to solar radiation is 0.25, what is its steady-state temperature?

02/14/25Chapter 1 21
 Surface Energy Balance
For a control surface:

qrad”
qcond”
T1 E in  E out 0
or
" " "
qconv” qcond  qconv  qrad 0
T2
T
T
x

02/14/25Chapter 1 22
 Example (Problem 1.55 textbook)
The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 800
W/m2, while the underside is perfectly insulated. The convection
coefficient between the roof and the ambient air is 12 W/m2.K.
a) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the
temperature of the roof under steady-state conditions, if the ambient
air temperature is 20°C.
b) For the same ambient air temperature, calculate the temperature of
the roof it its surface emissivity is 0.8

02/14/25Chapter 1 23