DEPT & SEM : ECE-A & II SEM

SUBJECT BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

NAME :
BCME
COURSE CODE
: I

UNIT : J HARISH

PREPARED BY
:

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 1

Basics of Civil Engineering

• Role of Civil Engineers in Society

• Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering

• Structural Engineering

• Geotechnical Engineering

• Transportation Engineering

• Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering

• Environmental Engineering

• Scope of each discipline

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 2

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

• CEMENT

• SAND

• AGGREGATE

• BRICKS

• CEMENT CONCRETE

• STEEL

• TIMBER

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 3

 BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING

 Engineering is the profession of application of scientific and mathematical

knowledge and rational thinking to improve living standards.

 Engineer provides comfort to mankind and makes life comfortable.

 Engineer cleverly uses the available natural resources for the benefit of mankind.

 Thus engineering is primarily a creative activity aimed at satisfying human needs.

 Engineering and civilization are closely related and each stimulates and advances
the other.

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 BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which is growing right from the
stone stage civilization.

 Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles.

 An infrastructure development of nation plays a significant role in its economic

growth.

 A fast growing economy increases faster development of infrastructure.

 Civil engineers build the world ‘s infrastructure.

 Civil engineers shape the progress of nation around the world.

 Civil engineers provide safe and comfort living environment to the public.

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 ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN SOCIETY
 Civil engineers are considered to be indispensable professionals.

 Civil engineers have one of the greatest responsibilities on this planet that is to
build the quality of life.

 Civil Engineers develop and improve the services and facilities we use every day.

 Supplying clean water to homes, to processing and recycling waste, to find

solutions to problems like pollution.

 Civil engineers design and build bridges, roads, railways and tunnels.

 A civil engineer has the responsibility to design safe structures that meet standard
codes in the regions where they are being built.

 They must ensure these structures are designed with efficiency, safety,
maintenance and durability in mind.

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 ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN SOCIETY

Good planning of towns and extension areas in the  undertaking complex calculations
cities.
 liaising with clients and a variety of
Assured water supply. professionals including architects and
subcontractors
 A good drainage system.
 compiling job specs and supervising tendering
 Pollution free environmental conditions.
procedures
 A well planned and built networks of roads and 
resolving design and development problems
road crossings.
 managing budgets and project resources
 Railways connections to all important cities and
towns.  scheduling material and equipment purchases
and deliveries
 Airports and harbours of national and
international standards.  making sure the project complies with legal
requirements, especially health and safety
 undertaking technical and feasibility studies
including site investigations  assessing the sustainability and environmental
impact of projects
 using a range of computer software for
developing detailed designs  ensuring projects run smoothly and structures
are completed within budget and on time
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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering may be divided into the following fields :

1) Structural Engineering

2) Geo-technical Engineering

3) Transportation Engineering

4) Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering

5) Environmental Engineering

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 9

 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1) STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

It deals with the structural design and analysis of buildings, bridges etc., taking the
loads into consideration and designing the various components of a structure for it’s
stability.

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 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2) GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

 It deals with engineering behaviour of soils and rocks and design of foundation.

 Knowledge from the fields of Geology, Material science and testing etc. are applied
by Geotechnical Engineers for safe and economical design of foundations etc.

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 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3) TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 It deals with the construction of roads including highways, rails, bridges, tunnels,
etc.

 The development of a Nation mainly depends on the communication facilities.

 The Nation wealth is measured in terms of the road and railway facilities available.

 There are three modes of transportation, viz., land, water and air.

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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

4) HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

(A) HYDRAULICS

 Water is an important need for all living beings.

 Hydraulics deals with mechanics of water flow.

 Study of mechanics of fluid and it’s flow characteristics is another important field in
Civil Engineering and it is known as hydraulics.

 The problems man encountered in the fields of water supply, irrigation, water
power resulted in the development of this branch.

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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(B) WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

It deals with the construction and maintenance of canals, reservoirs, dams,

distribution channels to the cultivable land, docks, harbors, etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 16

 VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

5) ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

 Environmental Engineering is the integration of science and engineering principles

to improve the natural environment, to provide healthy water, air and land for
human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate pollution sites.

 It deals with the purification of water drinking water supply, disposal of liquid and
solid wastes, pollution control etc.

 The Civil Engineer plays an active role in the preservation of the Ecology and
environment.

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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1) STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

 Structure is the assemblage of two or more basic elements such as beam, slab,
column, truss, frame etc.

 Structural engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the structural
integrity and strength of a building or a structure.

 Structural engineering is a speciality of civil engineering that ensures the structures

are safe, stable and don’t collapse under applied loads.

 Structural engineering is mainly focused on analysis and design of the structure.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 20

 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2) GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

 Soil property changes from place to place. Even in the same place it may not be
uniform at various depths.

 The soil property may vary from season to season due to variation in moisture
content.

 The load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil. For this, safe bearing
capacity of the soil is to be properly assessed.

 The study of soil strata and it’s different properties is called Geotechnical
Engineering.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 21

 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Apart from finding safe bearing capacity for foundation of buildings, geotechnical
engineering involves various studies required for the design of pavements, tunnels,
earthen dams, canals and earth retaining structures.

 Geotechnical Engineers are responsible for evaluating subsurface and soil

conditions and materials, using the principles of soil and rock mechanics.

 They are commonly appointed as consultants on construction projects.

 Geotechnical engineers can be involved in ground improvement, in which soil is

treated through a variety of different techniques to improve strength and stiffness.

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 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3) TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 Transportation facility is another important need to the public.

 Providing good and economical transportation facilities is an important duty of civil

engineers.

 Transportation is an important branch of civil engineering that oversees the

planning, designing, construction, implementation, maintenance and operations of
various modes of transportation.

 Any product or system that moves people and goods from one place to another
falls under the scope of transportation engineering.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 23

 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

4) HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

A) HYDRAULICS

 Water is an important need for all living beings.

 Study of mechanics of fluid and it’s flow characteristics is another important field in
Civil Engineering and it is known as hydraulics.

 Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to

problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation,
measurement and use of water.

 Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much
water is involved.

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 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 The hydraulic engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams,

channels, canals.

 The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various
features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams,
culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects.

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 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

B) WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

 Water is essential to our lives.

 Water is to be supplied for drinking purposes and agricultural purposes.

 Hence, suitable water resources are to be identified and water is to be stored.

 Water resources engineers deals with the physical control of water.

 They work with others to prevent floods, supply water for cities, industry and
agriculture.

 Identifying, planning and building water retaining structures like tanks and dams is
known as water resources engineering.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 26

 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 The main responsibility of a water resource engineer is to manage a population’s

water use and ensure that the treatment of water is safe for human consumption.

 They are also responsible for designing treatment plants, supply systems, pipelines
and pump systems to effectively manage wastewater for both private and public
consumption.

 Wastewater, if not treated and managed correctly, can have negative health effects
on the environment and a community.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 27

 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

5) ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

 Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles

that provide a better environment to give healthy water, air and land for human
habitation and other living beings.

 Proper distribution of water to rural areas, towns and cities and disposal of
wastewater and solid waste are related to environmental engineering.

 The skills of environmental engineers have become increasingly important as we

protect our fragile resources.

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 SCOPE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Environmental engineers translate physical, chemical and biological processes into

systems to destroy toxic substances, remove pollutants from water, reduce
hazardous waste volumes, eliminate contaminants from the air and develop water
supplies.

 Environmental engineers are called upon to resolve the problems of providing safe
drinking water, cleaning up contaminated sites with hazardous materials, disposing
of wastewater and managing solid wastes.

 Environmental engineering while tackling all these problems provides healthy

environment to public.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 29

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

 Several materials are required in construction.

 The materials used in the construction of engineering structures such as buildings,

bridges and roads are called construction materials or building materials or
engineering materials.

 They include cement, sand, aggregates, bricks, cement concrete, steel and timber

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

CEMENT

 Cement is commonly used binding material in construction.

 The cement is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (calcium) and

argillaceous (clay) material at a very high temperature and then grinding the clinker
so produced to a fine powder.

 It was first produced by a mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924.

 He patented it as cement.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 31

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY CEMENT

 The ordinary cement contains two basic ingredients namely argillaceous and
calcareous.

 In argillaceous materials , the clay predominates and in calcareous materials, the

calcium carbonate predominates.

 A typical chemical analysis of a good ordinary cement is as follows

 Lime (CaO) – 62 % Silica (SiO2) – 22 %

 Alumina (Al2O3) – 5 % Calcium sulphate – 4 %

 Iron oxide – 3 % Magnesia – 2%

 Sulphur – 1 % Alkalies – 1 %
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 32
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Following are the important properties of good cement

 It should act as good binding material.

 It should be easily workable.

 It should offer good resistance to moisture.

 It should possess good plasticity.

 It should harden early.

 It should impart strength to masonry.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

COMPOUNDS IN CEMENT

Portland cement consists of the following chemical compounds.

1) Tricalcium Silicate - - 40%

2) Dicalcium Silicate ( - - 30%

3) Tricalcium Aluminate ( - 11 %

4) Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite ( -

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

GRADES OF CEMENT

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is classified in to following three grades

1) OPC – 33 Grade

2) OPC – 43 Grade

3) OPC – 53 Grade

In the modern construction activities higher grade cements have become so popular
that 33 grade cement almost out of the market.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 35

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

TYPES OF CEMENT
In addition to Ordinary Portland Cement, there are many
varieties of cement.
They are
1) White Cement 2) Coloured Cement
3) Quick Setting Cement 4) Rapid Hardening
Cement 5) Low Heat Cement 6) Pozzolana
Cement 7) Expanding Cement 8)
High Alumina Cement 9) Blast
Furnace Cement 10) Acid Resistant Cement
1) Sulphate Resisting Cement 12) Fly ash
Blended Cement
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 36
 WHITE CEMENT

 This is just a variety of ordinary cement and it is prepared from such raw
materials which are practically free from colouring oxides of iron,
manganese and chromium.

 For burning of this cement, the fuels is used instead of coal.

 White cement is used for floor finishes, plastering works, fixing tiles etc.

 The first white cement factory was setup in Kottayam, Kerala in 1956.

 White cement is more costlier than ordinary cement because of specific

requirements imposed upon the raw materials and the manufacturing
process.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 37

 COLOURED CEMENT

The cements of desired colours are produced by mixing mineral pigments

with ordinary cement.

 Chromium oxide gives green colour.

 Cobalt produce blue colour.

 Iron oxide is added to give brown, red and yellow colour.

 Manganese dioxide gives black colour to the cement.

 These cements are used for giving finishing of floors, walls, roofs etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 38

 QUICK SETTING CEMENT

 This cement is produced by adding a small percentage of aluminium

sulphate and by finely grinding the cement.

 The percentage of gypsum is also greatly reduced.

 This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after addition of water and it
becomes hard like stone in less than 30 minutes.

 This cement is used to lay concrete under static or slowly running water.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 39

 RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

 By burning at high temperatures, increasing lime content and grinding very fine,
rapid hardening cement is produced.

 The initial and final setting time of this cement is same as ordinary cement.

 But it attains high strength in early days.

 This cement is slightly costlier than ordinary cement, but it offers the following
advantages

 As it sets rapidly, the construction work may be carried out speedily.

 This cement requires short period of curing and permits earlier removal of
formwork.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

 It obtains strength in a short period.

 It is light in weight.

 It is not damaged easily.

 The structural members constructed with this cement may be loaded earlier.

 Use of this cement results in economic design.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 41

 LOW HEAT CEMENT

 In mass concrete works like construction of dams, the heat produced due to heat of
hydration will not get dispersed easily.

 It may give rise to cracks.

 In order to reduce the amount of heat, this type of cement is used.

 It contains lower percentage of tricalcium aluminate of about 5% and higher

percentage of dicalcium silicate of about 46%.

 This cement possesses less compressive strength.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 42

 POZZOLANA CEMENT
 The pozzolana is a volcanic powder.

 It is found in Italy.

 It can also be processed from shales and certain types of rocks.

 The percentage of pozzolana materials should be added between 10 to 30 %.

 This cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix and for marine
structures.

Following are the advantages of this cement

 It attains compressive strength with age

 It can resist action of sulphates and offers greater resistance to expansion.

 It evolves less heat during setting.

 It imparts higher degree of water tightness.

 It possesses higher tensile strength COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 43

Following are the disadvantages of this cement

 It’s compressive strength in early days is less.

 It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.

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 EXPANDING CEMENT

 This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-

aluminate and a stabilizing agent to the ordinary cement.

 Hence this cement expands whereas other cements shrink.

 The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures
and also for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 45

 HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT

 It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite.

 It is more resistant to attack by sulphate and acid also to the action of frost.

 It contains aluminates between 35 to 55 %.

 It is used for works under water.

Following are the advantages of this cement

 It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of adding water.

 It can withstand high temperature.

 It resists the action of acids in a better way.

Following are the disadvantages of this cement

 It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as it sets soon.
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 BLAST FURNACE CEMENT

For this cement, the slag as obtained from blast furnace is used.

 The slag is a waste product in the manufacturing process of pig-iron and it contains
the basic elements of cement namely alumina, lime and silica.

 The properties of this cement are more or less same as that of ordinary cement,
but it is cheap, since it utilizes waste product.

 This cement is durable but it needs longer period of curing since it gains strength
slowly.

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 ACID RESISTANT CEMENT

An acid resistant cement is composed of the following

(i) Acid resistant aggregates such as quartz, quartzites etc.

(ii) Additive such as sodium fluosilicate

(iii) Aqueous solution of sodium silicate or soluble glass

 This cement has good resistance to acid and water.

 It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.

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 SULPHATE RESISTANT CEMENT

 By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 5%, this cement is

produced.

 This cement is similar to OPC except it contains more silicates and less quantity of
aluminates.

 This cement is used for under water structures particularly exposed to alkali action.

 Examples of such structures are canals, culverts etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 49

 FLY ASH BLENDED CEMENT

 Fly ash is a by-product in thermal power stations.

 They contain silica and other chemicals.

 Particles of fly ash are very small and they create air pollution problem.

 Thermal power stations spend a lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose.

 One of the best way to dispose it is to mix with cement.

 We have to further process the fly ash to make it suitable to blend with cement.

 20 to 30 % fly ash is used for blending.

 Fly ash blended cement have superior quality of resistance to weather.

 Hence, concrete produced with such cement is durable.

 The ultimate strength gained is same as that with OPC.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 50

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT

 Cement manufacturing process involves various raw materials and processes.

 Cement is a greenish grey coloured powder made of calcined mixtures of clay and
limestone.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT

 There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement.

They are

1) Mixing of raw materials

2) Burning

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT
3) Grinding

4) Storage and packaging

1) Mixing of raw materials

 The calcareous materials such as lime stone and argillaceous materials like clay are
the raw materials majorly used in the manufacturing of cement.

 There are two methods of mixing, they are dry Process and wet Process.

Dry Process

The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the gyratory
crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are again grinded
to get fine particles into ball or tube mill. After screening this finely grinded materials
are stored in hopper. Then powdered minerals are mixed and dry raw mix is stored in
silos and ready to be sent into rotary kiln.
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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

Wet Process

In this process first raw materials are crushed and made into powdered form and
stored in silos. Then clay is washed and sticky organic matters are removed. Then
powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and
transfer to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is formed.
Then grinding process is done in a ball or tube mill or even both. Then the slurry is led
into collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry contains around
38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary kiln.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

2) Burning

This process is carried out in rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-2rpm
at its longitudinal axis. The raw mix of dry process of corrected slurry or wet process is
injected into the kiln from the upper end. Powdered coal or oil or hot gases are used
to be heated up from the lower end of the kiln so that the long hot flames is produced.
The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-1700 degree
Celsius where lime and clay are reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium
silicates. This aluminates and silicates of calcium fuse together to form small and hard
stones are known as clinkers. The size of the clinker is varies from 5-10mm. The clinker
coming from the burning zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of clinkers,
air is admitted in counter current direction at the base of the rotary kiln. The cooled
clinkers are collected in small trolleys.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

3) Grinding

The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers
are grinded finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added
around 2-3% as retarding agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is
cement that does not settle quickly when comes in contact with water. After the initial
setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards the
dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalciumsulfoaluminate which is
insoluble and prevents too early further reactions of setting and hardening.

4) Storage and packaging

The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container
load or 50kg bags.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - CEMENT

USES OF CEMENT

Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures.

Some of them are

 Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.

 Cement mortar is used for masonry works, plastering, pointing etc.

 Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings,
bridges, water tanks, tunnels etc.

 It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths etc.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

AGGREGATES

 The aggregates are mixed with cement to form concrete or cement mortar.

 Aggregates are generally cheaper than cement and impart greater volume , stability
and durability to concrete.

 There are two types of aggregates

(i) Fine aggregate

 Fine aggregate usually consists of sand or crushed stone.

(i) Coarse aggregate

 Coarse aggregates consists of gravel (pebbles), fragments of broken stone.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 57

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

SAND

 Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles.

 Sand is a non-renewable resource.

 Sand is suitable for making concrete.

 The most important function of sand is to assist in producing workability and

uniformity in mixture.

 The sand also assists the cement paste to hold the coarse aggregate particles in
suspension.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

NATURAL SOURCES OF SAND

 The sand particles consists of small grains of silica.

 It is formed by decomposition of sand stones due to various effects of weather.

 According to the natural sources from which the sand obtained, it is of the
following three types

1) Pit sand

2) River sand

3) Sea sand

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

1) PIT SAND

 This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained by forming pits in to soils.

 It is excavated from a depth of about 1 m to 2 m from ground level.

 The pit sand consists of sharp angular grains which are free from salts.

 The pit sand is an excellent material for mortar or concrete work.

 Pit sand must be made free from clay and other organic materials before it can be
used in mortar.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

2) RIVER SAND

 This sand is obtained from banks or beds of rivers.

 The river sand consists of fine rounded grains due to mutual attrition under action
of water current.

 The colour of river sand is almost white.

 As river sand is usually in clean condition, it is widely used for all purposes.

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

3) SEA SAND

 Sea sand is obtained from the sea shores.

 The sea sand consists of fine rounded grains.

 Sea sand is light brown in colour.

 The sea sand contains salts and these salts attract moisture from the atmosphere.

 Such absorption causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work.

 Sea sand increases the setting time of cement.

 Due to all such reasons, it is the general rule to avoid use of sea sand for all
engineering purposes even though it is available in plenty.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 62

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

CLASSIFICATION OF SAND

According to the size of the grains, the sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly.

1) FINE SAND

 The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as
fine sand.

 Fine sand is mainly used for plastering.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 63

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

2) COARSE SAND

 The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as
coarse sand.

 It is generally used for masonry work.

3) GRAVELLY SAND

 The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 7.62 mm is known as
gravelly sand.

 It is generally used for concrete work.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 64

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 65

 BULKING OF SAND
 The increase in the volume of sand due to the presence of moisture is
known as bulking of sand.

 This is due to the fact that moisture forms a film of water around the sand
particles and this results in an increase in the volume of sand.

 The extent of bulking depends on the grading of sand.

 The finer the material the more will be the increase in volume for the given
moisture content.

 For a moisture content of 5 – 8 percent, the increase in volume may be

about 20 – 40 percent depending upon the gradation of sand.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 66

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

 When the moisture content is further increased, the sand particles pack near each
other and the amount of bulking is decreased.

 Hence dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the
same volume.

 The volumetric proportioning of sand depends upon the extent of bulking.

 It is more with fine sands than with coarse sands.

 If proper allowances are not made for bulking of sand, the cost of concrete and
mortar increases and it results in inadequate sand.

 This makes the mix harsh and difficult for working and placing.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 67

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND

 It should be clean and coarse.

 It should be free from any organic matter or vegetable matter.

 It should be chemically inert.

 It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.

 It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.

 It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.

 It should be strong and durable.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 68

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

FUNCTIONS OF SAND IN MORTAR

The sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following purposes.

1) Strength

2) Bulk

3) Setting

4) Shrinkage

5) Surface area

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 69

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

1) STRENGTH

 It helps in the adjustment of strength of mortar or concrete by variation of it’s

proportions with cement or lime.

 It also increases the resistance of mortar against crushing.

2) BULK

 It acts as adulterant.

 Hence the bulk or volume of mortar is increased which results in reduction of cost.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 70

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - SAND

3) SETTING

If building material is fat lime, the carbon dioxide is absorbed through the voids of
sand and setting of fat lime occurs effectively.

4) SHRINKAGE

It prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar in the course of drying and hence the
cracking of mortar during setting is avoided.

5) SURFACE AREA

It subdivides the paste of the binding material in to a thin film and thus more surface
area is offered for it’s spreading and adhering.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 71

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

 Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete.

 Aggregates give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy.

 Aggregates constitute major volume in concrete, they occupy 70-80 percent of the
volume of the concrete.

 Aggregates are the most important materials in the world.

 Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt.

 Aggregates serve as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite

material.

 Aggregates are also used as base material under roads, railroads etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 72

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

SOURCES OF AGGREGATES

 Almost all natural aggregates originate from bed rocks.

 There are three kinds of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

 These classifications are based on the mode of formation of rocks.

i) IGNEOUS ROCKS

The rocks which are formed by the cooling of magma are known as the igneous rocks.

Examples: Granite, dolerite, basalt etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 73

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

ii) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the pre-
existing rocks.

Examples: Gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum, lignite etc.

iii) METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks.

 The igneous rocks as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they
subjected to great heat and pressure.

 The process of change is known as metamorphism.

Examples: Marble, slate, quartzite etc.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 74
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

AGGREGATES FROM IGNEOUS ROCKS

Most of the igneous rocks make highly satisfactory concrete aggregates because they
are normally hard, tough and dense.

AGGREGATES FROM SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

The quality of aggregates derived from sedimentary rocks will vary in quality
depending upon the cementing material and the pressure under which these rocks are
originally compacted.

AGGREGATES FROM METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Many metamorphic rocks particularly quartzite and gneiss have been used for
production of good concrete aggregates.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 75

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

1) CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO GEOLOGICAL ORIGIN

A) NATURAL AGGREGATES

These are generally obtained from natural deposits of sand and gravel or from
quarries by cutting rocks.

B) ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES

The most widely used aggregates are clean broken bricks and air cooled fresh blast
furnace slag.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 76

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 77

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 78

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

2) CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE

A) FINE AGGREGATE

The aggregates which passes through a 4.75 mm IS sieve and predominantly retained
on the 75 sieve are called fine aggregates.

B) COARSE AGGREGATE

The aggregates which are retained on the 4.75 mm IS sieve having particle size more
than 4.75 mm are termed as coarse aggregates.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 79

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 80

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 81

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

3) CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SHAPE

 The particle shapes of aggregates influence the properties of fresh concrete more
than those of hardened concrete.

 Depending upon the particle shape, the aggregate may be classified as follows

A) Rounded aggregate

B) Irregular aggregate

C) Angular aggregate

D) Flaky and elongated aggregates

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 82

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

A) ROUNDED AGGREGATES

 The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the
form of seashore gravel.

 Rounded aggregates result in the minimum percentage of voids (32-37%) and

hence gives more workability.

 They are not considered for high strength concrete because of poor interlocking
behaviour and weak bond strength.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 83

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 84

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

B) IRREGULAR AGGREGATES

 The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these
are available in the form of pit sands and gravel.

 Irregular aggregates may result 35-37% of voids.

 These aggregates will give lesser workability when compared to rounded

aggregates.

 The bond strength is slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required
for high strength concrete.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 85

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 86

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

C) ANGULAR AGGREGATES

 Angular aggregates result in maximum percentage of voids (38-45%) and hence

gives less workability.

 They give 10-20% more compressive strength due to development of stronger

aggregate-mortar bond.

 So, these are useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 87

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

D) FLAKY AND ELONGATED AGGREGATES

 When the aggregate thickness is small when compared to it’s width and length, it is
said to be flaky aggregate.

 When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is
called elongated aggregate.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 88

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

4) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UNIT WEIGHT

The aggregates can also be classified according to their unit weight as follows

A) NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATE

 The normal weight aggregates are such as sand, gravel material which we regularly
use in construction.

 The normal weight aggregates are used for column, beam and slab.

 The density of normal weight aggregates ranges between 1520 to 1680 Kg/Cum.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 89

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

B) LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE

 The density of light weight aggregates ranges between 800 to 1100 Kg/Cum.

 The light weight aggregates will have a high absorption value compared to other
aggregates.

 The light weight aggregates are used as a filling material in flooring, deck slab etc.

C) HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATE

 The density of heavy weight aggregate ranges between 2100 to 2900 Kg/Cum.

 The main drawback of heavy weight aggregate is it produces very low workability in
concrete.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 90

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COARSE AGGREGATES

 Coarse aggregates, which typically consist of materials such as gravel, crushed

stone, or recycled concrete, possess several physical properties that are important
in construction and engineering.

 These physical properties play a significant role in determining the performance,

strength, and durability of concrete mixes in various construction applications.

 The following are the important physical properties of coarse aggregates.

1) Particle Size 4) Porosity

2) Shape and Texture 5) Absorption

3) Density 6) Durability

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 91

 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - AGGREGATES

1) PARTICLE SIZE

 Coarse aggregates have larger particle sizes compared to fine aggregates.

 They typically range from 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve) to 37.5 mm (1.5 inches) in
diameter.

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 92

 BRICKS
•
Bricks are one of the oldest
known building materials dating
back to 7000 BC where they
were first found in southern
Turkey and around Jericho.
•
Bricks are more commonly used
in the construction of buildings
than any other material except
wood.
•
Brick is dominant within its field
and a great industry has
developed and invested in the
manufacture of many different
types of bricks of all shapes and
colours. COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 93
 Properties or Qualities of Good
Bricks:
It should have deep red or cherry colour.
It should have perfect and sharp edges.
It should free from cracks or flaws.
It should have rectangular shape of standard size 19 x
9 x 9cm.
It should be burnt equally and evenly. Over-burnt bricks
form into irregular mass. Under-burnt Bricks - Soft and
crumble on light crushing.
Clear metallic ringing sound should come when struck
with each other or with hammer.
When broken, it should show homogeneous and
compact structure and free from voids. COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 94
No impression should be left when scratched with
fingernails.
It should not break when dropped flat on hard
ground from a height of about one meter.
When kept immersed in water for 16 hours, it
should not absorb water more than 20% of its
own weight.
It should have low thermal conductivity and high
sound insulation.
Crushing strength should be in between 3.5
N/mm2 to 7N/mm2 .
It should not show deposits of white salts like
sulphates of calcium, sodium, potassium and
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 95
 Composition of Good Brick
Earth:
Alumina: It constitutes 20-30%. Alumina imparts plasticity to the clay.
Excess of alumina makes raw bricks to shrink and warp during drying and
burning.

Silica: It constitutes 50-60%. It prevents cracking, shrinking and warping

of raw bricks. It gives uniform shape and durability to the bricks. Excess of
silica makes the brick brittle and useless.

Lime: It constitutes 5%. It prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. It enables the

Silica to melt in burning and bind the particles of brick together. Excess of
lime makes the brick to melt and the shape will be lost.

Iron Oxide: It constitutes 5-6%. Iron oxide enhances the durable quality. It
imparts red colour to brick.

Magnesia: A small quantity of Magnesia brick earth decreases shrinkage.

Excess of Magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

Alkalis (mainly Soda and Potash): Alkalis in bricks absorb moisture

from it. They cause the brick to fuse, twist and warp during burning Pg. 96
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1
 Classification of Bricks
Sun-dried or Unburnt or Kutcha Bricks: Dried in
sun light after moulding. Low crushing strength –
used in the temporary structures.
Burnt or Pucca Bricks: Burnt in kilns or clamps.
High crushing strength and used for all construction
works.
Perforated bricks: Perforated bricks contain
perforation, i.e., small cylindrical holes. These bricks
are light in weight. Heat insulation capacity is high
but, sound insulation capacity is low.
Hollow Bricks: Hollow bricks have cavities. These
bricks have high insulation against heat, sound and
damp. These are light in weight. These can be laid
faster than ordinary bricks. These bricks are used for
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 97
 Testing of Bricks:
Shape and size test: Rectangular with sharp
edge. Standard size 19 x 9 x 9 cm.
Soundness test: Clear ringing sound should be
produced when two bricks were stricken with each
other.
Structure test: Homogenous, compact and free
from defects.
Colour uniformity test: Deep red or cherry
colour.
Water absorption test : Its value should not be
more than 20%
COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 98
 TIMBER

A tree basically consists of three parts namely, trunk, crown and

roots. The function of the trunk is to support the crown and to
supply water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves through
branches and from the leaves back to the roots. The roots are
meant to implant the trees in the soil ,to absorb moisture and
the mineral substances it contains and to supply them to the
trunk

Details of structure: From the visibility aspect, the structure of

tree can be divided into two categories :- (1). Macrostructure (2).
Microstructure

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 99

Macrostructure: The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small
magnification is called the macro structure.

Following are its different components

COURSE: BCME UNIT: 1 Pg. 100