Operating System

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Department Prepared by : Shripad Bhide

Unit I : 8 hours

Introduction to System Software , Overview of all system software’s :

Operating system , I/O manager, Assembler , Compiler, Linker , Loader.

Introductory Concepts : Operating system functions and characteristics.

Historical evolution of operating systems.

Real time systems.

Distributed systems.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Department Prepared by : Shripad Bhide

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer
system.
An operating System (OS) is an intermediary between users and computer
hardware. It provides users an environment in which a user can execute programs
conveniently and efficiently.
In technical terms, It is a software which manages hardware. An operating System
controls the allocation of resources and services such as memory, processors,
devices and information.
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

a) Memory Management b) Processor Management
c) Device Management d) File Management
e) Security f) Control over system performance
g) Job accounting h) Error detecting aids
i) Coordination between other software and users
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Department Prepared by : Shripad Bhide
Computer software can be divided into two main categories:
Application Software & System Software.
Application software consists of the programs for performing tasks particular to
the machine's utilization. This software is designed to solve a particular problem
for users.
e.g. spreadsheets, database systems, desktop publishing systems, program
development software, and games etc.
System Software is more transparent and less noticed by the typical computer
user. This software provides a general programming environment in which
programmers can create specific applications to suit their needs.
This environment provides new functions that are not available at the hardware
level and performs tasks related to executing the application program.
System software acts as an interface between the hardware of the computer and
the application software that users need to run on the computer.
The diagram below illustrates the relationship between application software and
system software.

The most
important
type of
system
s/w is the
OS

An operating system has three main responsibilities :

1) Perform basic tasks, such as recognizing i/p from the k/b, sending o/p to the
display screen,
2) Keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and
3) Controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
Ensure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere
with each other.
Provide a software platform on top of which other programs (i.e. application
software) can run.
The first two responsibilities address the need for managing the computer hardware
and the application programs that use the hardware.
The third responsibility focuses on providing an interface between application
software and hardware so that application software can be efficiently developed.
Since the operating system is already responsible for managing the hardware, it
should provide a programming interface for application developers.
There are four common types of operating system strategies on which modern
operating systems are built :

a) Batch b) Timesharing c) personal computing d) dedicated.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 This strategy involves reading a series of jobs (called a batch) into the
Batch machine and then executing the programs for each job in the batch. This
approach does not allow users to interact with programs while they operate.
This strategy supports multiple interactive users. Rather than preparing a job
for execution ahead of time, users establish an interactive session with the
Timesharing
computer and then provide commands, programs and data as they are needed
during the session.
This strategy supports a single user running multiple programs on a dedicated
Personal machine. Since only one person is using the machine, more attention is given
Computing
to establishing predictable response times from the system. This strategy is
quite common today because of the popularity of personal computers.
This strategy supports real-time and process control systems. These are the
types of systems which control satellites, robots, and air-traffic control. The
Dedicated
dedicated strategy must guarantee certain response times for particular
computing tasks or the application is useless

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
A computer consists of various devices that provide input and output (I/O) to and
from the outside world. Typical devices are keyboards, mice, audio controllers,
video controllers, disk drives, networking ports, and so on. Device drivers provide
the software connection between the devices and the operating system. For this
reason, I/O is very important to the device driver writer.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
 I/O Manager
The Windows kernel-mode I/O manager manages the communication between
applications and the interfaces provided by device drivers. Because devices
operate at speeds that may not match the operating system, the communication
between the operating system and device drivers is primarily done through I/O
Request Packets (IRPs). These packets are similar to network packets or
Windows message packets. They are passed from operating system to specific
drivers and from one driver to another.
The Windows I/O system provides a layered driver model called stacks. Typically
IRPs go from one driver to another in the same stack to facilitate communication.
e.g. a joystick driver would need to communicate to a USB hub, which in turn
would need to communicate to a USB host controller, which would then need to
communicate through a PCI bus to the rest of the computer hardware. The stack
consists of joystick driver, USB hub,
PES Modern USB
college host controller,
of Engg.,MCA Departm and the PCI bus.
ent
This communication is coordinated by having each driver in the stack send and
receive IRPs.
The I/O manager has two subcomponents: the Plug and Play Manager and Power
Manager. They manage the I/O functionality for the technologies of Plug and Play
and power management.
Plug and Play (PnP) is a combination of hardware technology and software
techniques that enables a PC to recognize when a device is added to the system.
With PnP, the system configuration can change with little or no input from the user.
For example, when a USB thumb drive is plugged in, Windows can detect the
thumb drive and add it to the file system automatically.
The PnP manager is actually a subsystem of the I/O manager.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
A mini- driver uses an OS supplied library to abstract from the OS requirements.
Miniclass works in place of a device class driver
Class mini-driver implements device-specific details of storage class, such as tape
and disk. It links against classpnp.sys. classpnp.sys implements common PNP
and power support functionality.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
sample set of
drivers

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
Starting at the bottom of the previous figure, the drivers in the sample stack
include:
A PCI driver that drives the PCI bus. This is a PnP bus driver. The PCI bus driver
is provided with the system by Microsoft.
The bus driver for the USB host controller is implemented as a class/miniclass
driver pair. The USB host controller class and miniclass drivers are provided with
the system by Microsoft.
The USB hub bus driver that drives the USB hub. The USB hub driver is
provided with the system by Microsoft.
Three drivers for the joystick device; one of them is a class / miniclass pair.
The function driver, the main driver for the joystick device, is the HID class
driver/HID USB miniclass driver pair. (HID represents "Human Interface
Device".) The HID USB miniclass driver supports the USB-specific semantics of
HID devices, relying on the HID class driver DLL for general HID support.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Department Prepared
by : Shripad Bhide
A function driver can be specific to a particular device, or, as in the case of HID,
(Human Interface Device) a function driver can service a group of devices.
In this example, the HID class driver/HID USB miniclass driver pair services
any HID-compliant device in the system on a USB bus.
A HID class driver/HID 1394 miniclass driver pair would service any HID-
compliant device on a 1394 bus.
A function driver can be written by the device vendor or by Microsoft.
In this example, the function driver (the HID class/HID USB miniclass driver
pair) is written by Microsoft.
There are two filter drivers for the joystick device in this example: an upper-
level class filter that adds a macro button feature and a lower-level device filter
that enables the joystick to emulate a mouse device.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
The upper-level filter is written by someone who needs to filter the joystick I/O
and the lower-level filter driver is written by the joystick vendor.
The kernel-mode and user-mode HID clients and the application are not drivers
but are shown for completeness.

The figure shows a sample PnP hardware configuration for a USB joystick.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
 Illustration of WDM (Windows Driver Model) Driver Layers
In this figure, the USB joystick plugs into a port on a USB hub. The USB hub in
this example resides on the USB Host Controller board and is plugged into the
single port on the USB host controller board. The USB host controller plugs into
a PCI bus. From a PnP perspective, the USB hub, the USB host controller, and
the PCI bus are all bus devices because they each provide ports. The joystick is
not a bus device.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 KERNEL
In computing, the kernel is a computer program that manages I/O (input/output)
requests from software, and translates them into data processing instructions for
the central processing unit and other electronic components of a computer.
The kernel is a fundamental part of a modern computer's operating system.
i.e. A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.
Kernel mode, also referred to as system mode, is one of the two distinct modes
of operation of the CPU (central processing unit) in Linux.
The other is user mode, a non-privileged mode for user programs, that is, for
everything other than the kernel.
When the CPU is in kernel mode, it is assumed to be executing trusted software,
and thus it can execute any instructions and reference any memory addresses
(i.e., locations in memory).
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
The kernel (which is the core of the operating system and has complete control
over everything that occurs in the system) is trusted software, but all other
programs are considered un-trusted software.
Thus, all user mode software must request use of the kernel by means of a system
call in order to perform privileged instructions, such as process creation or
input/output operations.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
The critical code of the kernel is usually loaded into a protected area of memory,
which prevents it from being overwritten by other, less frequently used parts of the
operating system or by applications.
The kernel performs its tasks, such as executing processes and handling interrupts,
in kernel space, whereas everything a user normally does, such as writing text in a
text editor or running programs in a GUI (graphical user interface), is done in user
space.
This separation is made in order to prevent user data and kernel data from
interfering with each other and thereby diminishing performance or causing the
system to become unstable (and possibly crashing).

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 The OS Kernel
• The internal part of the OS is often called the kernel
• Kernel Components
– File Manager
– Device Drivers
– Memory Manager
– Scheduler
– Dispatcher
OS File Manager

• Maintains information about the files that are available on the system

• Where files are located in mass storage, their size and type and their
protections, what part of mass storage is available.
• Files usually allowed to be grouped in directories or folders. Allows
hierarchical organization.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 OS Device Drivers
• Software to communicate with peripheral devices or controllers
• Each driver is unique.
• Translates general requests into specific steps for that device.

OS Memory Manager
• Responsible for coordinating the use of the machine’s main memory.
• Decides what area of memory is to be allocated for a program and its data.
• Allocates and deallocates memory for different programs and always knows
what areas are free.
OS Scheduler
• Maintains a record of processes that are present, adds new processes, removes
completed processes
– memory area(s) assigned
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
 – priority
– state of readiness to execute (ready/wait)

OS Dispatcher
 Ensures that processes that are ready to run are actually executed.
 Time is divided into small (50 ms) segments called a time slice
 When the time slice is over, the dispatcher allows scheduler to update process
state for each process, then selects the next process to run.
OS Summary
 Shell -- Interface to user.

 File Manager -- Manages Mass (bulk) Memory.

 Device Drivers -- Communicate with Peripherals.

 Memory Manager -- Manages Main Memory.

 Scheduler & Dispatcher --

PES Manage
Modern collegeProcesses.
of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
Functions of OS

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
There are Many Functions those are Performed by the Operating System But the
Main Goal of Operating System is to Provide the Interface between the user
and the hardware i.e. Provides the Interface for Working on the System by the
user.
Operating System will Manages all the Resources of the Computer System
those are attached to the System.
e.g. Memory , Processor , all the I/O Devices etc.
The Operating System will identify at which Time the CPU will perform which
Operation and in which Time the Memory is used by which Programs.
Also which Input Device will respond to which Request of the user means When
the Input and Output Devices are used by the which Programs.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Storage Management
Operating System also Controls all the Storage Operations .
Means how the data or files will be stored into the computers and how the Files
will be accessed by the users etc.
All the operations those are responsible for storing and accessing the files is
determined by the Operating System .
Operating System also allows Creation of Files, Creation of Directories and
Reading and Writing the data of Files and Directories and also copy the contents
of the Files and the Directories from One Place to Another Place.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Process Management
The Operating System also treats the process management means all the Processes
those are given by the user or the Process those are System ‘s own Process are
handled by the Operating System .
The Operating System will create the priorities for the user and also start or stops
the execution of the process.
Also makes the Child Process after dividing the Large Processes into the Small
Processes.

Memory Management
Operating System also manages the memory of the Computer System means
provide the memory to the process .
Also de-allocate the memory from the Process if a Process gets completed .

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
Extended Machine : Operating System also behaves like an Extended Machine
means Operating system also Provides us Sharing of Files between Multiple
Users, also Provides Some Graphical Environments and also Provides Various
Languages for Communications and also Provides Many Complex Operations like
using Many Hardware’s and Software’s.
Mastermind: Operating System also performs many functions and for those
reasons we can say that Operating System is a Mastermind. It provides Booting
without an Operating System and provides facility to increase the Logical Memory
of the Computer System by using the Physical Memory of the Computer System
and also provides various Types of Formats Like NTFS and FAT File Systems.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
Operating System also controls the errors those have been occurred into the
program and also provides recovery of the system when the system gets damaged.
Means when due to some Hardware Failure , if system doesn’t works properly
then this recover the system and also correct the system and also provides us the
Backup Facility. And Operating System also breaks the large program into the
Smaller Programs those are also called as the threads. And execute those threads
one by one.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
Computer applications today require a single machine to perform many operations
and the applications may compete for the resources of the machine.
This demands a high degree of coordination
This coordination is handled by system software known as the operating system
OS Shell interface
Users

O/S
Users
Users

shell

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
OS for batch jobs
 Program execution required may require equipment.
 OS was a system to simplify program setup & simplify transition between
jobs.
 Physical separation of users and equipment led to computer operators.
(responsible for)
 Users left jobs with the operator and came back the next day (batch jobs).
 Users had no interaction with computer during program execution.
 Some applications may require interaction.
OS for Interactive Processing
 Allowed programs to carry on dialogue with user via remote terminals
(workstations) Real-time processing
 Users demand timely response
 Machines too expensivePEStoModern
serve only
college one user.
of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS) intended to
serve real-time application process data as it comes in, typically without
buffering delays. Processing time requirements (including any OS delay) are
measured in tenths of seconds or shorter.
OS for time-sharing
 To accommodate multiple real-time users, the OS rotates its various jobs in
and
out of execution via time-sharing.
 Each job gets a predetermined “time slice”
 At end of time slice current job is set aside and a new one starts.
 By rapidly shuffling jobs, illusion (feeling) of several jobs executing
simultaneously is created.
 Without time slicing, a computer spends most of its time waiting for
peripheral devices or users.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
 ent
A system is said to be Real Time if it is required to complete it’s work & deliver
it’s services on time. A key characteristic of an RTOS is the level of its consistency
concerning the amount of time it takes to accept and complete an application's task.
e.g. – Flight Control System [All tasks in that system must execute on time.]
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system designed
for real-time applications. Such applications include embedded systems, industrial
robots, scientific research equipment and others.
• Hard Real Time System
– Failure to meet deadlines is fatal (dangerous)
– example : Flight Control System
• Soft Real Time System
– Late completion of jobs is undesirable but not fatal.
– System performance degrades as more & more jobs miss deadlines
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
– Online Databases ent
 Scheduling Algorithms in RTOS
• Clock Driven Scheduling
• Weighted Round Robin Scheduling
• Priority Scheduling

(Greedy / List / Event Driven)

• Clock Driven
– All parameters about jobs (release time/ execution time/deadline) known in
advance.
– Schedule can be computed offline or at some regular time instances.
– Minimal runtime overhead.
– Not suitable for many applications.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
• Weighted Round Robin
– Jobs scheduled in FIFO manner
– Time quantum given to jobs is proportional to it’s weight
– Example use : High speed switching network
• QOS guarantee.
– Not suitable for precedence constrained jobs.
• Job A can run only after Job B. No point in giving time quantum to Job
B before Job A.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
• Priority Scheduling

(Greedy/List/Event Driven)
– Processor never left idle when there are ready tasks
– Processor allocated to processes according to priorities
– Priorities Static - at design time
Dynamic - at runtime
• Earliest Deadline First (EDF)
– Process with earliest deadline given highest priority
• Least Slack Time First (LSF)
– slack = relative deadline – execution left
• Rate Monotonic Scheduling (RMS)
– For periodic tasks
– Tasks priority inversely proportional
PES Modern
ent
to it’sDepartm
college of Engg.,MCA period
a)–(b) A distributed system.
(c) A parallel system.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
A distributed system is a collection of autonomous computers linked by a
computer network that appear to the users of the system as a single computer.
Definition : A distributed system consists of a collection of autonomous
computers, connected through a network and distribution middleware, which
enables computers to coordinate their activities and to share the resources of the
system, so that users perceive the system as a single, integrated computing
facility.
By running a distributed system software the computers are enabled to:
- coordinate their activities
- share resources: hardware, software, data.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Centralised System Characteristics
 One component with non-autonomous parts.
 Component shared by users all the time.
 All resources accessible.
 Software runs in a single process.
 Single Point of control.
 Single Point of failure.
Distributed System Characteristics
 Multiple autonomous components.
 Components are not shared by all users.
 Resources may not be accessible.
 Software runs in concurrent processes on different processors.
 Multiple Points of control.
 Multiple Points of failure.
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent
Common Characteristics Resource Sharing

 Resource Sharing  Ability to use any hardware, software or

 Openness data anywhere in the system.
 Concurrency  Resource manager controls access, provides
 Scalability naming scheme and controls concurrency.
 Fault Tolerance  Resource sharing model (e.g. client / server or
 Transparency object-based) describing how resources are
provided, they are used & provider and user

interact with each other.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Openness Concurrency
 Openness is concerned with  Components in distributed
extensions & improvements of systems are executed in
distributed systems. concurrent processes.
 Detailed interfaces of components  Components access and
need to be published. update shared resources (e.g.
 New components have to be variables, databases, device
integrated with existing drivers).
components.  Integrity of the system may
 Differences in data representation be
of interface types on different violated if concurrent updates
processors (of different vendors) are not coordinated.
have to be resolved.  Lost updates.

ent

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
Inconsistent analysis.
 Scalability Fault Tolerance
 Adaption of distributed systems to  Hardware, software and networks fail!
• accommodate more users.  Distributed systems must maintain
• respond faster (this is the hard one) availability even at low levels of
 Usually done by adding more and/or hardware/software/network reliability.
faster processors.  Fault tolerance is achieved by
 Components should not need to be • recovery
changed when scale of a system • redundancy
increases.
 Design components to be scalable!

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Transparency Access Transparency
 Distributed systems should be  Enables local and remote
perceived by users and application information
programmers as a whole rather than objects to be accessed using identical
as a collection of cooperating operations.
components.  Example: File system operations in
 Transparency has different NFS.
dimensions  Example: Navigation in the Web.
that were identified by ANSA.  Example: SQL Queries
 These represent various properties
that
distributed systems should have.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Location Transparency Concurrency Transparency
 Enables information objects  Enables serveral processes to operate
to be accessed without concurrently using shared information
knowledge of their location. objects without interference between
e.g. File system operations in them. e.g. NFS , Automatic teller
NFS machine network , Database
 Example: Pages in the Web management system
 Example: Tables in distributed
databases.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Replication Transparency Failure Transparency
 Enables multiple instances of  Enables the concealment of faults
information objects to be used to  Allows users and applications to
increase reliability and performance complete their tasks despite the failure
without knowledge of the replicas by of other components.
users or application programs e.g. : Database Management System
 e.g. Distributed DBMS
 e.g. Mirroring Web Pages.

PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm

ent
 Migration Transparency Performance Transparency
 Allows the movement of information  Allows the system to be
objects within a system without reconfigured to improve
affecting the operations of users or performance as loads vary.
application programs e.g. Distributed make.
e.g. NFS , Web Pages

Scaling Transparency
 Allows the system and applications to
expand in scale without change to the
system structure or the application
algorithms.
e.g. World-Wide-Web , Distributed
Database
PES Modern college of Engg.,MCA Departm
ent