AVT 1100

PART 141 – PRIVATE PILOT GROUND SCHOOL

GROUND LESSON 9
GL 9 – AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
The Atmosphere
• Standard Atmosphere – At Sea Level, 59o F or 15o
C and 29.92 inches of Mercury (29.92”Hg) or
1,013.2millibars (Pascal)
• Standard Temperature Lapse Rate – Temperature
deceases at approximately the rate of 3.5o F or 2o
C per 1,000 ft increase in altitude – up to 36,000
feet
• Standard Pressure Lapse Rate – Pressure
decreases at a rate of approximately 1” Hg per
increase of 1,000 feet in altitude up to 10,000 ft
• This is known as International Standard
Atmosphere (ICAO recognized)
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Atmosphere
• Pressure Altitude – height of the standard datum plane
• Theoretical level where the weight of the atmosphere is
29.92’Hg and 15o C. Also referred to as the zero-elevation
level of the standard atmosphere.
• Pressure Altitude can be determined by two methods:
1. Setting the altimeter in the aircraft to 29.92
2. Applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
according to the reported altimeter setting. (1”Hg / 1,000ft)
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Pressure Altitude
• The importance of keeping your altimeter set to current AND LOCAL altimeter
Settings!
• When you are flying in high pressure, the airplane performs as if it were flying at lower altitude
because the air is thicker, this is low density altitude.
• When you are flying in low pressure, the airplane performs as if it were flying at a higher
altitude because the air is thinner, this is high density altitude.
• When flying from a high pressure to low pressure ,and you do NOT change/update your
altimeter setting: High to Low – Look Out Below
• Airplane flying at lower altitude than indicated
• When flying from a low pressure to high pressure ,and you do NOT change/update your
altimeter setting: Low to High – Clear the Sky
• Airplane flying at higher altitude than indicated
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Atmosphere
• Density of air has significant effect on aircraft performance
• Less dense air (thin air) reduces:
• Power – takes in less air
• Thrust – propeller not as effective in thin air
• Lift – thin air exerts less force on airfoils
• Density Altitude – Pressure altitude corrected for NON-standard
temperature.
• HIGH density ALTITUDE = LOW air DENSITY
• LOW density ALTITUDE = HIGH air DENSITY
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Atmosphere
• Effects of Pressure on Density
• Density varies directly with pressure
• Density increases when pressure increases
• Effects of Temperature on Density
• Density varies inversely with temperature
• Density increases when temperature decreases
• Best flying days are Cold, High pressure days.
• Regardless of the actual altitude that an aircraft is flying, the aircraft will perform
as though it were operating and altitude equal to the existing density altitude.
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PERFORMANC
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Atmosphere
• Effects of Humidity on Density
• Relative humidity – amount of water vapor contained in the atmosphere.
• Expressed as a percentage (%) of the maximum amount of water vapor the air can
hold. (100% humidity = rain; air is completely saturated (full of water)
• Relative humidity varies with temperature
• Warm air can hold more water than cold air
• Warm, moist air = less dense; poor aircraft performance
• Cold, dry air – more dense; good aircraft performance
• Aircraft perform best on Cold, Dry , High Pressure days.
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Performance
• Primary factors most affected by performance are:
• Takeoff and landing distances
• Rate of climb
• Service Ceiling
• Payload
• Range
• Speed
• Stability
• Maneuverability
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Performance
• Climb Performance
• Result of using the aircraft’s potential (stored or available) energy through
1. The excess power above what is required for straight and level flight
2. A tradeoff: a reduction in kinetic energy to increase its potential energy
• Important not to confuse the terms power and thrust
• Power – work rate or units of work per unit of time
• Thrust - A force that causes a change in the velocity of a mass
• During steady climb, the rate of climb is a function of excess thrust available
(powerplant)
• For a given weight of an aircraft, the angle of climb depends on the difference
between thrust and drag; or, the excess power
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Performance
• Climb Performance
• Best Angle of Climb ( VX) – Where there exists the
greatest difference between thrust available and
thrust required. (Excess Thrust)
• Max excess thrust and max angle of climb will
occur just above stall speed
• High AOA and usually at full power; therefore, VX is
usually close to VR
• Remember: pitch (AOA) controls airspeed – you
are already at max power.
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Performance
• Climb Performance
• Best Rate of Climb ( VY) – Where there exists
the greatest difference between power
available and power required. (Excess power)
• Best rate of climb will give you the best
altitude gained per unit of time.
• In VFR conditions, cruise climb speeds will
be set at a higher airspeed but lower AOA in
order to increase forward visibility during
the climb for collision avoidance. You gain
less altitude over time but much safer flight.
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Performance
• Climb Performance – Factors that effect climb performance
• Most critical factors include:
• High gross weight
• High Altitudes
• Obstructed take off areas
• Powerplant malfunctions
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Performance
• Climb Performance – High Gross weight
• Must fly at higher AOA – closer to stall speed
• Increases both induced drag (AOA) and parasite drag (cruise speed)
• If drag increases, then trust must increase to maintain straight and level
• Therefore, less reserve or excess thrust resulting in less climb capability
• Reduces the maximum rate of climb
• Aircraft must be operated at a higher climb speed to achieve the
reduced/smaller peak-climb rate.
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Performance
• Climb Performance – High Altitude
• Climb performance reduces in high altitude.
• Low density air moving through propeller = less thrust
• Low density air moving across airfoil = less lift
• Low density air entering engine = less power
• VX , VY , and max/min level-flight airspeeds vary with altitude
• Aircraft reaches two points: Absolute Ceiling and Service Ceiling
• Absolute Ceiling: No excess power available; Results in Rate of Climb = 0
• Service Ceiling: Altitude that aircraft is unable to climb at a rate greater than 100 FPM
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Performance
• Range Performance – Two basic purposes
1. Achieve the maximum flying distance from a given fuel load
2. Fly a specified or predetermined distance using the least amount of
fuel.
• Range = number of nautical miles travelled compared to the amount of
fuel burned. NM / pounds of fuel – When are you most concerned with range?
• Endurance = Amount of time in flight compared to the amount of fuel
burned. Hours / pounds of fuel - When are you most concerned with
endurance?

• Fuel can be represented in either gallons (light aircraft) or pounds (heavy

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Performance
• Region of Reverse Command
• Region where higher power settings
result in lower speeds and lower power
settings result in higher airspeeds
• Only encountered in low airspeed / high
AOA (where does this happen?)
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Performance
• Take off and Landing Performance
• Majority of pilot-caused accidents occur in take off and landing phases
• Runway Surface and Gradient
• Performance charts are based on paved, level, smooth and dry surfaces
• Soft surfaces (grass, dirt, gravel) and obstructions (mud, snow, water) increase
takeoff distances due to reduction in aircraft acceleration capability.
• Runway Gradient is the slope of the runway, measured as a %
• For every 100ft., the runway height increases/decreases by the percentage number.
Example: 3% would equal a 3 foot height change for every 100 ft.
• Solve for 8,000ft runway: 8,000/100 = 80*3=240; 240ft difference at opposite ends
of runway. (consider the take off and landing effects in either direction)
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Performance
• Runway Gradient – A more realistic example
• Most airports in the U.S. have a runway gradient less than 1%, few between 1% and 2%, and
anything above 2% is uncommon.
• A 1% gradient would equal 1 foot vertical distance per 100 feet of horizontal distance.
• A 2% gradient would equal 2 feet vertical distance per 100 feet of horizontal distance.
• Therefore an 8,000 ft. runway with 1% gradient = 8,000 x .01 = 80 ft. vertical distance between the
longitudinal edges of the runway.
• OR 1 foot increase per 100 feet – At 8,000 ft. there are 80, 100-foot units which would translate to 80 * 1
= 80 ft. gradient – the same as 8,000(1%) or 8,000(.01)
• An 8,000 ft runway with a .07% gradient =
• 8,000 x .0007 = 5.6 ft. gradient – or – 8,000 x .07% = 5.6 ft.
• .07 ft vertical distance per 100 foot horizontal distance.
• It is important to know: 1.5% = .015 1% = .01 .5% = .005 .05% = .0005
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Performance
• Water/Ice on runway reduces the friction between the tires and runway
• Greatly reduces braking effectiveness
• Can completely separate the tires from the runway
• Dynamic Hydroplaning
• Condition in which aircraft is riding on a thin sheet of water
• Braking and directional control are almost non-existent
• Hydroplaning formula: nine multiplied by the square-root of the tire pressure (psi)
• Landing at higher then recommended touchdown speeds gives greater potential for
hydroplaning.
• Plan in advance when landing on wet runways. Some runways are grooved to drain standing
water.
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Performance
• Takeoff Performance – allows us to define the runway requirements
• Minimum takeoff distance is obtained by rotating at a minimum safe speed that
allows a sufficient margin above stall speed and provides adequate aircraft control
and initial rate of climb.
• Major factors affecting takeoff performance:
• Gross Weight
• Wind speed and direction
• Runway slope and condition
• Density Altitude ( pressure altitude and non-standard temps)
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Performance
• Takeoff Performance – Effect of Gross Weight
• Higher lift off speed
• Greater mass to accelerate
• Increase in retarding forces (drag & ground friction)
• 10% increase in gross weight results in:
• 5% increase n takeoff velocity
• Min. 9% decrease in acceleration rate
• Min 21% increase in takeoff distance
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Performance
• Takeoff Performance – Effect of Wind
• Why do we take off into the wind? –
• Allows the aircraft to reach lift off at a
lower ground speed
• More airflow over airfoils – improved
aerodynamics
• A headwind = 10% of VR will reduce takeoff
distance by roughly 19%
• A Tailwind = 10% of VR will increase takeoff
distance by roughly 21%
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Performance
• Takeoff Performance – Effect of Density Altitude & Runway Condition
• Density Altitude
• Greater takeoff speed
• Decreased Thrust and reduced net accelerating force
• Aircraft at a high altitude will take off at the same Indicated Airspeed (IAS) as the
aircraft at sea level but it is the True Airspeed (TAS) that will be higher.
• This is due to high density altitude or less dense air at altitude
• Runway Condition
• Upslope will increase distance / Downslope will decrease distance
• Runway surface is most important factor: dry grass surface can increase distance by
15%
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Performance
• Landing Performance – also allows us to define the runway requirements
• Minimum landing distance is obtained by touch down at a minimum safe speed that
allows a sufficient margin above stall and provides adequate aircraft control and
capability for a go-around.
• Major factors affecting landing performance:
• Gross Weight
• Wind speed and direction
• Runway slope and condition
• Density Altitude ( pressure altitude and non-standard temps)
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Performance
• Landing Performance – Effect of Gross Weight
• Higher touch down speed
• Greater speed required to support aircraft at the landing AOA and CL
• Greater mass to decelerate
• Increase in retarding forces (braking friction)
• 10% increase in gross weight results in:
• 5% increase in landing velocity
• 10% increase in landing distance
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Performance
• Landing Performance – Effect of Wind
• Why do we land into the wind? –
• Allows the aircraft to touch down at a lower
ground speed while maintaining a required
airspeed (wind over airfoils to produce lift)
• More airflow over airfoils – improved
aerodynamics
• A headwind = 10% of touchdown speed will
reduce takeoff distance by roughly 19%
• A Tailwind = 10% of touchdown speed will
increase takeoff distance by roughly 21%
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Performance
• Landing Performance – Effect of Density Altitude & Runway Condition
• Density Altitude
• Greater landing speed, but does not alter retarding forces
• Aircraft at a high altitude will land at the same Indicated Airspeed (IAS) as the
aircraft at sea level but it is the True Airspeed (TAS) that will be higher.
• This is due to high density altitude or less dense air at altitude
• Runway Condition
• Upslope will decrease distance / Downslope will increase distance
• Runway surface is most important factor: dry grass surface can increase distance
by 20%
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Performance Charts
• Interpolation
• Process of finding the average between information that is given in set
intervals.
• You will see this type of chart on the FAA Knowledge Exam for
interpolation problems
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Performance Charts
• Density Altitude Chart
• Known Information
• Airport/Field Elevation, OAT, and Local ALT
1. Start with local ALT to find Press. ALT conv. Factor
2. Subtract/Add from airport/field elevation
3. Locate Temp on bottom of chart
4. Move upwards until you reach adjusted elevation
5. Move to left margin to find density altitude
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Performance Charts
• Take off Charts - Combined Take off distance graph
• Given: • Accounts for temp, PA, weight, wind, obstacle

• P.A. = 2,000 ft.

• OAT = 22 C
• Weight = 2600 lbs
• Headwind 6 kts
• 50 ft. obstacle
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Performance Charts
Takeoff Distance Chart –
Short Field PHAK pg. 11-21 #3
• High amount of
interpolation
• Weight
• P.A.
• Temps
• Be very careful to
read the notes and
conditions!!!
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Climb and Cruise Charts
• Fuel, Time, Distance Chart
- PHAK 11-21 #4
• Operate this graph twice! –
unless airport at sea level.
• Once for airport elevation
• Second for cruise Alt.
• Subtract the differences
• Remember to read notes
and conditions!
• Zero Wind condition – this
will get accounted for later
in cross country planning
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Climb and Cruise Charts
• Fuel, Time, Distance Table - PHAK
11-23 #5
• Operate this table twice unless
taking off from Sea Level!
• Once for airport
• Second for cruise Alt.
• Subtract the differences
• High amount of interpolation
• Remember to read notes and
conditions!
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Climb and Cruise Charts
• Cruise Range Performance Table-
PHAK 11-24 #6
• Gives fuel burn in GPH
• Range in NM
• Endurance in flight time
• High amount of interpolation
• Remember to read notes and
conditions!
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Climb and Cruise Charts
• Cruise Performance
Graph - PHAK 11-25 #9
• Gives TAS for temp/press
conditions for engine
power percentage settings
• Read Notes and
conditions!
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Crosswind component Charts
• Cruise Performance Graph - PHAK 11-25
#10
• Be sure you know your aircraft’s max
demonstrated crosswind component
• Applies to both takeoff and landing
1. Subtract runway and wind direction
2. Locate the wind angle (answer from step 1)
on graph
3. Move towards the origin of the graph until
you reach the reported wind speed on the
arc lines
4. Move left to y axis for Head wind
5. Move down to x axis for Cross wind
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Performance Charts
Combined Landing distance graph
• Accounts for temp, PA, weight, wind, obstacle

• Given:
• P.A. = 4,000 ft.
• OAT = 57 F
• Weight = 2400 lbs
• Headwind 6 kts
• 50 ft. obstacle
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Completion Standards
and
Study Assignment