Chapter 4 and 5

Modulation
and
Demodulation of
AM
1
2
Modulation
• The process of changing the characteristics ( phase, frequency or
amplitude) of high frequency carrier signal in accordance with the
instantaneous value of message signal is modulation.
• When carrier signal is continuous type then such type of modulation
is continuous wave modulation.

3
Continuous wave modulation

1) Linear modulation (Amplitude modulation)

2) Non-linear modulation or Angle modulation
1. Phase modulation(PM) and
2. Frequency modulation(FM)

Amplitude modulation:
The amplitude modulation is defined as the high frequency carrier
signal is changed in accordance with the instantaneous value of
message signal keeping phase and frequency constant.

4
Let us consider a carrier wave
C(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct + ϕc)
C(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct )
Here ϕ= 0 for phase of carrier wave=0

Let m(t) be the message signal or modulating signal

m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt )

The standard time domain expression for Amplitude modulated signal is:
S(t) = Ac m(t) Cos (2πfct ) + Ac Cos (2πfct )
=Ac [ 1 + Ka m(t)] Cos (2πfct)
Where Ka = amplitude sensitivity of AM modulation
Ac = carrier amplitude 5
Modulation index or Amplitude Sensitivity:
• It is the measure of extent of amplitude variation about an
unmodulated maximum carrier.
• It is the ratio of amplitude of message signal to the amplitude of
carrier signal.
• It is given as:
‘m’ or ‘a’ or ‘µ’=
µ = Am/ Ac or

• Generally expressed in % i.e. a = (Am /Ac) * 100 %

6
 Vm Vmax  Vmin
m 
Vc Vmax  Vmin
7
Analysis of AM equation
In AM, amplitude is varied,
So, A = Ac + m(t)
= Ac + AmCos(2πfmt)
= Ac(1 + (Am/Ac)Cos(2πfmt))

Therefore modulated signal is

S(t) = A Cos 2πfct
= Ac(1 + (Am/Ac)Cos2πfmt) Cos2πfct
= Ac( 1 + Ka m(t)) Cos2πfct
Where ka = 1/Ac
8
The term Ac( 1 + ka m(t) ) is called envelope of AM wave.

If |kam(t)|or simply modulation index(a) <1, this case is under modulation.

If |kam(t)| > 1, this case is overmodulation.
If |kam(t)| = 1, this case is 100 % modulation or normal modulation.

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10
Frequency domain expression of standard AM
The AM signal is written as
s(t) = Ac [1 + Ka m(t)] Cos2 = Ac Cos2 + KaAc m(t) Cos2

For frequency domain analysis taking Fourier transform on both sides:

We know FT
s(t) S(f)
FT
m(t) M(f)
FT
AcCos2πfct Ac/2 [δ(f-fc)+δ(f+fc)]
Using properties of Fourier Transform
FT
KaAcm(t) Cos2πfct [M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]
S(f) = [δ(f-fc ) + δ(f+fc)] + [ M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]
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Fourier Transform

12
Transmission Bandwidth of AM
Bandwidth = Range of frequency
B = (fc + fm) - (fc – fm)
= 2fm
So Bandwidth of Amplitude modulated signal is twice the frequency of
message signal.

13
Single tone AM
When message signal contains only one frequency then this is called single tone signal
and modulation is called single tone modulation.
Let us consider m(t) = Am Cos2πfmt And c(t) = Ac Cos2πfct
Then, s(t) = Ac [ 1 + Ka m(t)] Cos2πfct
s(t) = Ac[ 1 + Ka Am Cos 2π fm t ] Cos2πfct
s(t) = Ac[ 1 + µ Cos 2πfmt ] Cos2πfct
Where µ is the modulation index , µ = kaAm
For frequency domain analysis
s(t) = Ac Cos2πfct + AcAm Cos2πfmt Cos2πfct

s(t) = Ac Cos2πfct + (AcAm/2) [Cos2π(fc+fm)t + Cos2π(fc-fm)t]

Taking Fourier transform,
S(f) = (Ac/2)[δ(f-fc )+δ(f+fc)] + (AmAc/4) [δ(f-fc-fm) + δ(f+fc+fm )] + (AmAc/4) [δ(f-fc+fm) + δ(f+fc-
fm )] 14
Power in DSB-FC AM
• Total power Pt= Pc + PUSB + PLSB
• Carrier power = Pc = Ac2 /2R
• Upper side band power and Lower side band power is:
PUSB = PLSB = (Ac*0.707/2)2 = 2 Ac2/8
For R=1Ω
Therefore Total power (Pt)= (Ac2/2 ) + 2 Ac2/8 + 2 Ac2/8
= (Ac2/2) [1 +2/2]
= Pc (1+ 2/2)

16
Transmission efficiency in DSB-FC AM
Transmission efficiency (η%) = * 100%

= * 100%

= * 100%

Maximum efficiency is obtained when =1 or 100% modulation

η=33.33%
Only one third of the total power is transmitted in AM wave

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Characteristics of DSB-AM
1. Bandwidth occupied by this type of modulation is twice the BW of
the message signal. Thus there is waste of the precious BW.
2. As the carrier is also transmitted there is wastage of power and
therefore less efficient.
3. The modulation and demodulation processes are very simple and
less expensive.
4. Therefore this type of modulation is extensively used in radio
broadcasting where the cost of radio receivers are premium.

18
Generation of DSB-AM
1) Direct method
2) Indirect method
a) Non-Linear (Square law) modulator
b) Switching ( Chopper type) modulator

19
1. Direct method:

20
2. a) Non-linear or Square law:

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and Ac Cos(2πfct)
V1(t)= m(t) +AcCos(2πfct)

V2(t)=k1 V1(t) + k2 V12(t)

V2(t)=k1 [m(t) + AcCos(2πfct)] + k2 [m(t)+ A cCos(2πf ct)] 2
⇒V2(t)=k1m(t) + k1 AcCos(2πfct) + k2 m2(t) + k2 Ac2Cos2(2πfct)+

2k2m(t)AcCos(2πfct)

⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1Ac Cos⁡(2πfct)+ k2[m2(t) + Ac2cos2⁡(2πfct)+ 2 m(t) Ac cos⁡(2πfct)]

21
• The last term of the equation represents the desired AM wave and the first
three terms of the above equation are unwanted.
• So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the first three terms.
• Therefore, the output of square law modulator is:

s(t)=k1 Ac[1+(2k2/k1) m(t)] Cos(2πfct)

The standard equation of AM wave is:

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)] Cos(2πfct)

Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard
equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as k1 and the amplitude
sensitivity ka as 2k2/k1.
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 Spectrum of Square Law

⇒V2(t)= k1m(t)+ k2 m2(t) + k2 Ac2Cos2(2πfct) +

k1Ac[1+(2k2/k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)

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2. b) Switching or Chopper type modulator

• The diode has to operate as a switch.

• The message signal m(t) alone can not forward bias the diode i.e. turn it ON, because
amplitude Am is very low in comparison with carrier amplitude Ac .
• V2(t)= V1(t)=c(t)+m(t) as c(t)>0
0 as c(t)<0
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and c(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct)
respectively such that mathematically:
V1(t)= m(t)+c(t) = m(t) + Ac Cos(2πfct)
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We can approximate this as:
V2(t)=V1(t) x(t)
Where, x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T=1/fc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train x(t) is:

25
Substituting corresponding values of V1(t) and
x(t) in V2(t) we get:

26
• The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and
the remaining terms are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band
pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining
terms.
Therefore, the output of switching modulator is:

Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard AM
wave, we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude
sensitivity ka as 4/πAc .
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Spectrum of Switching modulator:
Class Assignment

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Demodulation of DSB-AM waves

• The process of detection or demodulation provides a means of

recovering the message signal from an incoming modulated wave.
• In effect, detection is the inverse process of modulation

We describe two technique for the detection of DSB-AM

1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector

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Demodulation of DSB-FC AM signal
• It is the reverse process of modulation.
• It converts the modulated signal into original form of message signal.
• It is the process of recovering the message signal.
1. Square law detector
• Demodulation of DSB FC Amplitude modulated wave
• A square law detector is obtained by using a square law modulator
for the purpose of detection.
• If we supply the modulated signal to the non linear device followed
by a LPF , we can recover message signal m(t).

31
Consider the transfer characteristic of a non linear device.
V2(t) = b1V1(t) + b2V1(t)2 ........(i)
Where b1 and b2 are constant

The input to the NL device is the DSB-AM which can be written as

V1(t) = Ac[1+ka.m(t)]Cos2πfct .........(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)

V2(t) = b1{Ac[1+ka. m(t)]Cos2πfct} +b2 Ac2(1 +ka.m(t))2 Cos(2πfct)2
= b1Ac[1+ka.m(t)]Cos2πfct + b2 Ac2 ((1 + 2 ka .m(t) + ka2m2(t) )[ ]
When this signal is passed to low pass filter,
= b2 Ac2 + b2 ka Ac2m(t) + b2 .Ac2.ka2 m2(t)

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The first term is dc term, second term is message signal and third term is
noise. All the other frequency above fc are attenuated by low pass filter.
So recovered message signal is b2 ka Ac2m(t) .

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 2. Envelope Detector
• The simplest and most popular method.
• Rectification and filtering of the AM
wave will produce desired message
signal.
• The charging time constant RsC must be
short compared with the carrier period
1/fc
RsC <<
• The discharging time constant RLC must
be long enough
<< RLC <<

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Double Sideband Suppress Carrier DSB-SC
• In the process of AM, the modulated wave consists of the carrier
wave and two sidebands. The modulated wave has the information
only in the sidebands.
• Sideband is nothing but a band of frequencies, containing power,
which are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.
• The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two
sidebands can be termed as DSBFC.
• However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the
power is being wasted in the carrier, which carries no information.
• If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the
two sidebands, then such a process is called as DSBSC.
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Time Domain Description of DSBSC
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions
for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.
m(t) S(t)
Product
i.e. Modulating signal = m(t) and Modulator
Carrier signal c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
c(t)
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of
DSBSC wave as the product of modulating and Carrier signal

carrier signals.

s(t)=m(t)c(t)
⇒s(t)=Ac cos(2πfmt) m(t)
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S(t) = Ac cos(2π fct)*m(t) ………..(1)

Frequency Domain Description:

Taking Fourier transform of equation (1)
We know
s(t) S(f)
m(t) M(f)
AcCos2πfct [δ(f-fc)+δ(f+fc)]
Therefore:
S(f) = Ac [M(f-fc) +M (f+fc)]

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Transmission Bandwidth:
BW = fc + fm – (fc- fm)
BW = fc + fm – fc +fm
BW = 2fm
That is twice the Bandwidth of message signal.

Transmission Power:
Pt = PLSB + PUSB

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DSB –SC for single tone signal
Let m(t) = Am Cos 2πfmt
C(t) = Ac Cos 2πfct

Then
s(t) = m(t) * C(t)
= Am Ac cos 2πfmt cos2πfct
= [ cos 2π(fc +fm)t + cos2π(fc –fm)t ]
Taking FT,
S(f) = [δ (f-fc-fm) + δ(f +fm +fc) + δ(f-fc +fm) + δ(f +fc –fm) ]

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40
Generation of DSCSC
1. Balanced Modulator
A balance modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators
arranged in a balance configuration so as to suppressed the carrier wave
as shown in the block diagram given below:

41
We assume that two modulator are identical except for the sign
reversal of the modulating wave apply to the input of one of them.
Thus the o/p of the two modulator may be expressed as:
S1(t) = Ac[1+amn(t)]cos2πfct ………………(i)
S2(t) = Ac[1-amn(t)]cos2πfct ………………(ii)
Then S(t) = S1(t) -S2(t)
= Ac[1+amn(t)]cos2 π fct+ Ac[1-amn(t)]cos2 π fct
S(t)= 2aAc mn(t)cos2πfct

Hence except for the scaling factor 2a the balance modulating factor is
equal to the modulating wave and the carrier as required.
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2. Ring Modulator
It is also know as a lattice or double balance modulator.
The four diode in figure below form a ring in which they all point in the
same way.

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The diodes are controlled by a square wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc
which is applied by means of two centered tapped transformer.
We assume that
- diodes are ideal
- m(t) alone can not forward bias the diodes.
- C(t) is sufficient to forward bias the diodes.

In one half cycle of c(t) ,

terminal a become +ve and terminal b become –ve.
In this case diodes D1 and D2 are forward bias and D3 and D4 reverse
bias.
As a result D1 and D2 pass the m(t) to the output as it is applied to the
input. 44
Now in another half cycle of c(t) diodes D3 and D4 become forward
bias and D1 , D2 reverse bias.
In this case m(t) is passed to the output in reverse polarity i.e – m(t) .
The net effect of this is equivalent to multiplying m(t) by a unit height
square wave pulse train. g(t) .
The signal at the input of BPF is
V2(t) = m(t) ×g(t) ……..(i)
Where,
g(t) = 1 if c(t) > 0
= -1 if c(t) < 0

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Expanding g(t) in Fourier series we get:
g(t) = Cos2πfct + gho(t)
Where, gho(t) = higher order harmonics.
The second term of above equation will be filtered out by BPF
and the output of DSB-SC will be:
S(t) = . m(t) . Cos2πfct

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Ring Modulator Waveform:

47
Demodulation of DSB-SC Signals
• The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave
is known as detection or demodulation of DSBSC.
• Two types of detectors are used for demodulating DSBSC wave.
• Coherent Detector or synchronous
• Costas Loop

Synchronous Demodulation:
• The demodulation method in which received modulated signal is multiplied by
locally generated carrier signal and then LPF is called coherent or synchronous
detection.
• It is assumed that the frequency and phase of locally generated carrier signal and
that of received signal are coherent or synchronized.

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1. Coherent/Synchronous Detection of DSB-SC

Let modulated wave of DSB-SC be

s(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct).m(t)
c(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct+φ)
From figure: v(t)=s(t)c(t)
v(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct).m(t).Ac Cos(2πfct+ φ)
 = Ac2cos(2πfct)cos(2πfct+ϕ)m(t)
= Ac2[cos(4πfct+ϕ)+cosϕ]m(t)
v(t) = osϕ m(t)+ Cos(4πfct+ϕ) m(t)
V0(t) = cosϕ m(t)

• The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ=00.

That’s why the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be
in phase, i.e., there should not be any phase difference between
these two signals.
• The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ=±900.

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2. Costas loop:

51
SSB Amplitude Modulation
• DSB-AM and DSB-SC AM wave are wasteful of bandwidth since BW = 2fm.
• As far as the transmission of message is concerned only one sideband is
necessary. Thus if carrier and one of the sideband is suppressed at
transmitter , the message can be transmitted without wasting bandwidth.
• The modulation of this type which provides a single sideband with
suppressed carrier is known as SSB-SC AM.
• It reduces transmission bandwidth by half compare to previous DSB FC AM
and DSC SC AM

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Frequency Domain Analysis

53
SSB Modulation
Let us consider a standard AM signal in case of sinusoidal modulating
signal which can be expressed as:

S(t) = Ac cos2πfct + AmAc/2 . cos2π(fc-fm)t + AmAc/2. cos2π(fc+fm)t

The standard equation of SSB-SC AM is

S(t) = m(t) cos 2πfct ± sin2πfct

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Single Tone SSB modulation

• Class Assignment
• USB for odd roll number
• LSB for Even roll number

55
Generation of SSB modulation
1. Filtering or Frequency Discrimination method
2. Phase Shift method

1. Filtering method
• In this method, first generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product
modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter.
This band pass filter produces an output, which is SSBSC wave.
• Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the
desired SSBSC wave. This means the band pass filter can be tuned to
either upper sideband or lower sideband frequencies to get the
respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

56
57
2. Phase Shift method
= Ac m(t) Cos2πfct
m(t)

= Ac Sin2πfct
58
Demodulation of SSB waves:
Coherent or Synchronous detection
• Coherent means the same carrier
signal (which is used for generating
SSBSC wave) is used to detect the
message signal.
• In this process, the message signal
can be extracted from SSBSC wave
by multiplying it with a carrier,
having the same frequency and the
phase of the carrier used in SSBSC
modulation.
• The resulting signal is then passed
through a Low Pass Filter. The
output of this filter is the desired
message signal. 59
Let us consider the SSB modulated wave at the input is:
S(t) = m(t) cos2πfct ± sin2πfct
Such that the output of product modulator is:
v(t) = c(t).s(t)
v(t) = m(t) cos22πfct ± sin2πfct . Cos2πfct
v(t) = m(t) (1 + cos4πfct) ± sin4πfct
v(t)LPF = m(t)

Thus at the output of the filter we get the scaled message signal m(t).

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Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation:
• VSB Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as
vestige is modulated along with one sideband.

Bandwidth of VSB Modulated

Wave = fm+fv

61
Generation of VSB:
• Generation of VSB wave is
similar to the generation of SSB
wave.
• The modulating signal m(t) and
carrier signal Accos(2πfct) are
applied as inputs to the product
modulator.
• The product modulator produces
an output, which is the product of
these two inputs.
• The output of the product
modulator is DSBSC signal

s1(t)=Ac cos(2πfct) m(t)

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 S1(f)= [M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]
Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f).
• This filter has the input s1(t) and the output is VSB modulated
wave s(t).
The Fourier transforms
of s1(t) and s(t) are S1(f) and S(f) respectively.
Mathematically,
S(f)=S1(f)H(f)

S(f)=[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)

In time domain expression;

s(t) = s1(t) * h(t)
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Demodulation of VSB:
• Let the VSB wave be s(t) and the carrier
signal is Ac Cos(2πfct).
• From the figure, we can write the output
of the product modulator as
v(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct) s(t)
Taking FT on both sides:
V(f) = S(f) .
We know S(f)=[M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)
So, V(f) = [M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]. . H(f)

V(f) = [M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc) + [M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)]

V(f) = M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)] + [M(f−2fc)H(f−fc)
+M(f+2fc)H(f+fc)]
In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the desired message signal
frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
V0(f)= M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]
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 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM - A form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital

information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the
modulated signal

QAM is an efficient way to achieve

QAM can either be considered high data rates with a narrowband
channel by increasing the number
a logical extension of QPSK or of bits per symbol, and uses a
a combination of ASK and PSK. combination of amplitude and
phase modulation.
 QAM Modulator and Demodulator
• QAM modulators and demodulators are required to provide the
capability to modulate both the in-phase and quadrature components of
the modulating signal onto the carrier.
Modulator
Correlator 1
d1(t) D/A Balance Tb Parallel
converter To
modulator, dt A/D Serial
M1 0
converter

cos 2πfct A
Carrier Signal QAM signal
Binary input fb /2 bps +
90° phase
data stream 2-bit vQAM (t) Detected
shifter
fb bps serial-to-parallel Σ Output
converter
Correlator 2
cos 2πfct
+ Balance Tb

fb /2 bps - modulator, dt A/D

π/2 M2 0

sin 2πfct
Clock @ Ts
D/A Carrier recovery circuit
converter
Raised to 4th Divide by 4
d2(t) power BPF (4fc) A
Modulator

66
Application of QAM: ISB (Independent Sideband)

67
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
• Will be discussed later on chapter 6.

68
Thank You

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