Primary Data

Module 6
Module 6 – Primary Data
(a) Primary Data: Meaning
(b) Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary
Data
(c) Types of PD - Quantitative Data and
Qualitative Data
(d) Advantages and Disadvantages – Quantitative
and Qualitative Data
(e) Quantitative Data Collection
(f) Qualitative Data Collection Method
(Observation, Depth Interview, Delphi
Techniques, Focus Groups, Projective Techniques)
Primary Data

Primary method of data collection is used

when the area to be investigated is high on
subjectivity and a structured method would not
elicit any meaningful information. The data
which is unprocessed and collected for the first
time by the researchers is termed as primary
data.
Primary Data

The collection of primary data seems to be quite expensive as

the responsibility of collection and research of primary data is
on the concerned organization itself. This data only become the
source of secondary data which is obtained by conducting
several statistical operations on this data.

Definition of primary data

It mainly refers to the data which is original and is originated for

the first time by the one conducting research through his large
efforts, mainly for finding out the solution to the research.
Primary Data: Advantages &
Disadvantages

Advantages of Primary Data

 Data collected is very specific to the problem and is useful.
 Quality of the data collected is not doubtful and is
meaningful.
 It may lead to the discovery of additional data and
information during its collection.
Disadvantages of Primary Data
 There are numerous hassles involved in the collection of
primary data like taking a decision such as how, when,
what and why to collect.
 The cost involved in the collection of primary data is very
high.
Qualitative V/S. Quantitative
Research(Distinguishing based
on various perspectives)

Research Objective
Qualitative research: It can be used to explore, describe or understand the
reasons for a certain phenomenon. For example, to understand what a low-cost
car means to an Indian consumer, this kind of investigation would be required.
Quantitative research: When the data to be studied needs to be quantified
and subjected to a suitable analysis in order to generalize the findings to the
population at large or to be able to quantify and explain and predict the
occurrence of a certain phenomenon. For example, to measure the purchase
intentions for Nano as a function of the demographic variables of income, family
size and distance travelled, one would need to use quantitative methods.
Research Design
Qualitative research: The design is exploratory or descriptive, loosely
structured and open to interpretation and presumptions.
Quantitative research: The design is structured and has a measurable set of
variables with a presumption about testing them.
Qualitative V/S. Quantitative
Research(Distinguishing based on
various perspectives)

Sampling Plan
Qualitative research: Only a small sample is
manageable as the information required needs to be
extracted by a flexible and sometimes lengthy
procedure.
Quantitative research: Large representative
samples can be measured and the data collected can
be based upon a shorter time span with a larger
number. Chances of error in extrapolating it to a larger
population are less and measurable
Qualitative V/S.
Quantitative Research
 Data Collection
Qualitative research: The data collection is in-depth and collected
through a more interactive and unstructured approach. Data
collected includes both the verbal and non-verbal responses.
Methodology requires a well-trained investigator.
Quantitative research: The data collected is formatted and
structured. The nature of interrogation is more of stimulus-response
type. The data collected is usually verbal and well-articulated.
Interrogation does not need extensive training on the part of the
investigator.
 Data Analysis
Qualitative research: Interpretation of data is textual and usually
non-statistical.
Quantitative research: Interpretation of data entails various levels of
statistical testing.
Qualitative V/S.
Quantitative Research
 Research Deliverables
Qualitative research: The initial and ultimate objective
is to explain the findings from more structured sources.
Quantitative research: The findings must be conclusive
and demonstrate clear indications of the decisive
action and generalizations.
Advantages of
Quantitative Method
 Well Known Methodology , this is the most popular
method of data collection
 The entire process is structured, the process can be
planned in advance.
 It is independent of the researcher. The analysis
uses standard methods /software.
 Some of the process can be outsourced hence the
researcher’s involvement can be minimized.
 Since all the respondents are asked same set of
questions the quantitative analysis of data is
possible.
Limitations of
Quantitative Method
 Its structured approach gives this method less
flexibility
 The method solely depends on a researcher’s
understanding of the topic. If the researcher does
not have adequate understanding of the
issue/problem. The method might not deliver valid
results.
 Only written responses are considered, the
unwritten responses like body language, the tone of
talking are not considered in this method.
Advantages of
Qualitative Data
 These methods do noy use questionnaires, data
collection techniques include observation, Focus
groups, semi-structured interviews etc.
 It has a flexible and unstructured approach of data
collection
 It is used when research is in the exploratory stage
and due to lack of research conducted on this topic
the researcher do not have enough knowledge
about the topic.
 Wherever new insights are explored from the
respondents , Qualitative technique is useful.
Limitations of
Qualitative data
 It is Time Consuming
 The amount of information gathered through this
method is not in proportion with time taken to
collect.
 The data collection should be done by qualified
experienced people.
Quantitative Methods of
Data Collection
Method 1- Survey
Quantitative Methods of
Data Collection –Survey
 Survey
 Survey is a method of data collection, usually on a large
scale.
 This is a structured method of data collection
 It has generally a fixed questionnaire containing set of
questions.
It can be administered using following methods:-

 Personally
 Telephonic
 Mail
 Electronic Media
 Personally administered survey or Structured
Interview:-
The set of questions are personally asked by the
researcher or interviewer.
In this method either the question is handed over
personally and taken back after completion or questions
are asked orally and noted down by interviewer.

Telephonic Survey:-
When it is not possible to personally conduct survey for
each unit in the sample data is collected through
telephonic interaction.
The questions are asked over phone by the researcher or
interviewer and they note down the responses after that.
 Mail Survey:- When respondents are geographically
dispersed and too far to call or for survey. Also when
the survey is detailed or extensive, questionnaires are
mailed to respondents.

 Survey using Electronic Media:-The questionnaires can

also be sent using electronic media. Using online
survey service, and sending links to respondents
through various online platform data can be collected.
Method 2 – Experiments
Experiments

Mechanical
Observation
s

Simulations
 Qualitative data
collection methods

Qualitative methods of data collection explore the

latent and the unconscious constructs through
various means that are loosely structured and
require in-depth and closer exploration and
reporting of phenomena or behavior, which would
not be apparent through more structured
methods.
Classification of qualitative methods

Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct Indirect
(Nondisguised) (Disguised)

Observation Focus Depth Content

Groups Interviews Analysis

Projective Sociometry New

Techniques

Association Completion Construction Expressive Choice /

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques Ordering
Qualitative vs quantitative methods

Research stage Qualitative Quantitative

Study objective Exploratory, Definite, conclusive and

investigative predictive
Research design Loosely structured Structured, controlled
conditions
Sampling plan Small samples Large/representative
samples
Type of approach Loosely structured Formatted & structured

Data analysis Textual and non- Statistically tested and

statistical authenticated
Study deliverables Explanatory and Conclusive and action
supportive oriented
DIRECT
METHODS
Observation Method
Method 1
Observation method
Observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups, organizations
or events in a scientific manner in order to collect valuable data related to
the topic under study.

Basic Method formats:

 Standardized and structured
 Non-standardized and unstructured
Level of respondent consciousness
 Disguised observation
 Undisguised observation
Observation setting
 Natural environment
 Simulated environment
OBSERVATORS
 Human observations
 Mechanical observations
Role of the human participants
 Participating
 Non-participating
Mechanical observation
method
 Store scanners and store cameras
 Audio and people meters
 Psycho galvanometer
 Oculometers
 Pupilometers
 Voice pitch meters
 Universal Product CODES (UPC)
Observation guide(sample sheet)
Focus group
discussion
Method 2
Focus group discussion

A focus group discussion involves collecting

information from a representative group of
respondents in a neutral setting. The process
generally involves a moderator who maneuvers the
discussion on the topic under study.
 It is essentially a sociological technique.
 The group dynamics influence the individual to
respond in divergent ways.
Key elements of focus
group method
 Size: Ideal recommended size for a group
discussion is
8 to 12 members.
 Nature: Composition of the group should be
homogenous-in terms of demographic and
psychographic traits and product/subject knowledge.
 Acquaintance: recommended that the members in
a group should be strangers to each other.
 Setting: Discussion setting should be neutral,
informal and comfortable.
Key elements of Focus
Group discussion(FGD)
 Time period: usually recommended that the
discussion should take place in a single setting.

 Recording: human or mechanical recording of the

entire discussion.

 Moderator: key conductor, might be a participant

or a non-participant.
Key moderator skills

• Listening skills

• Observation kills

• Flexibility of approach

• Empathetic yet objectivity of conduction

• Summary and closure approach

Planning & Conducting
FGDs
• Define the research objective(s) requiring discussion

• Split and bulleted into information areas

• Identifying the respondent screening/selection

criteria

• Conducting the FGD

• Summarizing the findings of the FGD

Stages in Focus group formation
Types of focus groups

 Two-way focus group

 Dual moderator group

 Fencing moderator group

 Friendship group

 Mini-groups

 Creativity groups

 Brand-obsessive groups

 Online focus groups

Focus group –
Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages

 Idea generation  Group dynamics

 Group dynamics  Scientific process

 Process advantage  Statistical analysis

 Reliability & validity  Moderator/investigator bias

Depth Interviews
Method 3
Personal interview method

The personal interview is a one to one interaction

between the investigator/interviewer and the
interviewee. The purpose of the dialogue is research
specific and ranges from completely unstructured to
highly structured

Typical Usage:
 Problem definition
 Exploratory research
 Primary data collection
Conducting the personal
interview
 Stating the interview objective

 Identifying the interview guidelines: unstructured,

semi-structured or structured.

 Screening the interviewees

 Analysis and interpretation of interview data

 INTERVIEWS

The interview process: The steps undertaken for the conduction of a

personal interview are somewhat similar in nature to a focus group
discussion.
Interview objective: The information needs that are to be
addressed by the instrument should be clearly spelt out as study
objectives. This step includes a clear definition of the
construct/variable(s) to be studied.  Interview guidelines: A typical
interview may take from 20 minutes to close to an hour. A brief
outline to be used by the investigator is formulated depending upon
the contours of the interview.
• Unstructured: Absolutely no defined guidelines. Usually begins
with a casually worded opening remark like ‘so tell us/me something
about yourself’. The cues are usually taken from what the subject
says. The direction the interview will take is not known to the
researcher also. The probability of subjectivity is very high and
generalization from such an investigation is extremely difficult.
 INTERVIEWS

• Semi-structured: This has a more defined format and

usually only the broad areas to be investigated are
formulated. The questions, sequence and language are left to
the investigator’s choice. Probing is of critical importance in
obtaining meaningful responses and uncovering hidden issues.
After asking the initial question, the interviewer uses an
unstructured format. The subsequent direction of the interview
is determined by the respondent’s initial reply, the
interviewer’s probes for elaboration and the respondent’s
answers.
• Structured: This format has highest reliability and validity.
There is considerable structure to the questions and the
questioning is also done on the basis of a prescribed
sequence. They are sometimes used as the primary data
collection instrument also.
 Categorization of personal interviews

Interview Methods

Telephone Personal
Interviewing Interviewing

Traditional Computer – In-Home Mall Computer –

Assisted Intercept Assisted
Interviews Methods
Personal methods
 These are the traditional one-to-one methods that have been used actively in all
branches of social sciences. However, they are distinguished in terms of the place of
conduction. These may be categorized as at-home, mallintercept, or computer-assisted
interviews.
 At-home interviews: This face-to-face interaction takes place at the respondent’s
residence. Thus, the interviewer needs to initially contact the respondent to ascertain the
interview time. The interviewer asks the respondent study-related questions and records
the responses. The cost and time involved in conducting these interviews is considerable,
which is the reason why they are avoided. However, they are used for syndicate research
studies like pantry audits. The advantage of the technique is that it can be used in
collaboration with observation to ascertain the lifestyle of the subject as well as get
his/her responses.
 Mall-intercept interviews: As the name suggests, this method involves conducting
interviews with the respondents as they are shopping in malls. Sometimes, product
testing or product reactions can be carried out through structured methods and followed
by interviews to test the reactions. The advantage of the method is that a large number
of subjects are accessible in a short time period, thus it is both cost and time effective.
However, the time available is short, thus the questioning cannot be extensive and must
get over in 20 to 30 minutes.
 Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI): These techniques are carried out
with the help of the computer. In this form of interviewing, the respondent faces an
assigned computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the computer screen by
using the keyboard or a mouse. A number of pre-designed packages are available to help
the researcher design simple questions that are self-explanatory and instead of probing,
the respondent is guided to a set of questions depending on the answer given. Thus,
predetermined branches are formulated for probing a particular line of thought. There is
usually an interviewer present at the time of respondent’s computer-assisted interview
and is available for help and guidance, if required. This is why they are called interviews
and not questionnaires.
Telephone method

 The telephone method involves replacing the face-to-face interaction between the
interviewer and interviewee, by questioning on telephones and calling up the subjects
to asking them a set of questions. The advantage of the method is that geographic
boundaries are not a constraint and the interview can be conducted at the individual
respondent’s location. The format and sequencing of the questions remains the same.
Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) is called so as there is usually an
interviewer present at the time of the respondent’s computer assisted interview.
 Traditional telephone interviews: The process can be accomplished using the
traditional telephone for conducting the questioning. With the improvement in
wireless technology, it is possible to reach the subject in the remotest of locations
with considerable ease.
 Computer-assisted telephone interviewing: In this process, the interviewer is
replaced by the computer and it involves conducting the telephonic interview using a
computerized interview format. The interviewer sits in front of a computer terminal
and wears a mini-headset, in order to hear the respondent answer. However, unlike
the traditional method where he had to manually record the responses, the responses
are simultaneously recorded on the computer. Once the interview time is fixed, the
call is made to the respondent by the computer. The interviewer reads questions as
listed in front of him on the computer screen and hears the response on the head set
and at the same time the answers are fed into the computer’s memory.
Content Analysis
Method 4
Content Analysis

Content analysis technique involves studying a

previously recorded or reported communication and
systematically and objectively breaking it up into
more manageable units that are related to the topic
under study.
 Material studied is usually ex-post facto.

 Study and analysis is, however, primary and problem

specific.
 Content Analysis
Universe of content
 Word

 Theme

 Character

 Space measures

 Time measures

 Item
 Content Analysis
Validating the findings
Obtaining the analysis from multiple evaluators and cross validating
using the following formula

 Pr (a) = the relative observed agreement between the two raters

 Pr (e) = the probability that this is due to chance.

If the two raters are in complete agreement then Kappa is =1. If

there is no agreement then Kappa=0, 0.21-0.40 is fair, 0.41-0.80 is
good and 0.81-1.00 is considered as excellent.
Delphi Technique
Method 5
 Delphi Technique

 The Delphi method is a forecasting process

framework based on the results of questionnaires
sent to a panel of expert.
 After each round of questionnaires, the experts are
presented with aggregate summary of last round,
allowing each expert to adjust their answers
according to the group response.
 This process combines the benefits of expert
analysis with elements of wisdom of crowds.
Advantage/Disadvantage of
Delphi Technique
Advantages Disadvantages

 Seeks to aggregate opinion  Delphi method does not

from diverse set of result in the same sort of
experts. interactions as a live
discussion.
 It can be done without
 A live discussion can
having to bring everyone
together for a physical sometimes produce a better
meeting. example of Consensus, as
ideas are introduced, broken
 The responses of the down, and reassessed.
participants are  Response times with Delphi
anonymous, individual method can be long, which
panelist don’t have to slows the rate of discussion.
worry about repercussions
 It is also possible that
for their opinion.
information received from
 Consensus can be reached the exerts will provide no
over time as opinions are innate value.
swayed, making the
method very effective.
INDIRECT
METHODS
Projective techniques

Projective techniques involve indirect questioning. The

respondent is given a relatively ambiguous stimuli
and the underlying assumption is that the
respondents would project their underlying needs,
emotions, beliefs and attitudes on to this object .
• Association techniques
• Completion techniques
• Construction techniques
• Choice or ordering techniques
• Expressive techniques
 The projective techniques:

It uncovers the different levels of consciousness of an individual’s mind and

reveal that data which is inhibited by socially-desirable and correct
responses.
Association techniques: These are the most frequently used methods in
management research. They essentially involve presenting a stimulus to the
respondent and he needs to respond with the first thing that comes to his
mind. The method is essentially borrowed from clinical psychology, the most
well known being the Rorschach Inkblot test. The set of inkblots are
ambiguous in nature, however, these are standardized blots symmetrical in
nature. The first few are in shades of black and white and the others are
coloured. Each of these is presented in a sequence to the consumer.
Completion techniques: These techniques involve presenting an
incomplete object to the respondent, which can be completed by the
respondent in any way that he/she deems appropriate. For example: Old
age is………………………………….
Construction techniques: These techniques might appear similar to
completion technique, however here, the focus is on the completed object,
which could be a story, a picture, a dialogue or a description. Here, again,
the level of ambiguity and scope for letting loose the respondents’
imagination is vast. (Few types of such tests:-Story Construction and
Cartoon test)
 Choice or ordering techniques: These techniques involve
presenting the respondents with an assortment of stimuli—in the
form of pictures or statements— related to the study topic. The
subject is supposed to sort them into categories, based on the
study instructions given.
 Expressive techniques: The focus on the other five techniques
was on the end result or the output. However, in expressive
techniques, the method or means or expressions used in
attempting the exercise are significant. The subject needs to
express not his/her own feelings and opinions but those of the
protagonist(s) in a given verbal or visual situation. Again the
presumption is that people are uncomfortable giving personal
opinion on a sensitive issue, but, do not mind or are less
inhibitive when it is in the third person. There are many
examples: Clay modelling—here the emphasis is on the manner
in which the person uses or works with clay and not on the end
result. ( Few types of such tests:- Psychodrama , Object
personification , Role playing )
 Sociometric analysis

Sociometry involves measuring the choice,

communication and interpersonal relations of
people in different groups. The computations made
on the basis of these choices indicate the social
attraction and avoidance in a group.
Sociometric measures

• Sociometric indices

• Sociometric matrix

• Sociogram
 Sociometric matrix(team choices)

Nimit Shanti Pooja Ravdeep Asmit Rini

Nimit 0 1 1 0 0 0
Shanti 1 0 0 0 1 0
Pooja 1 1 0 0 0 0
Ravdeep 0 1 0 0 1 0
Asmit 0 1 0 0 0 1
Rini 0 1 0 0 1 0
∑ 2 5 1 0 2 1
Delphi Technique
Method 5
Delphi Technique