Transistors

&
Opamp

February 13, 2025 1

 Contents
• Transistor (BJT) Structure
• Transistor characteristics and parameters
• DC operating point
• Transistor as an amplifier
• Transistor as a switch
• MOSFET
• Operational Amplifier
February 13, 2025 2
 Introduction
• The semiconductor device like a diode cannot amplify a
signal, therefore its application area is limited.

• The next development of semiconductor device after diode is a

BJT (bipolar junction transistor).

• It is a three terminal device. The terminals are – collector,

emitter, and base. Out of which the base is a control terminal.

• A signal of small amplitude applied to the base is available in

the “magnified” form at the collector of the transistor.

• Thus the large power signal is obtained from a small power

signal.
February 13, 2025 3
 History of Transistors

1948 – The year of establishment of E&TC - COEP

February 13, 2025 4
http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/belllabs_transistor.html
 Why is it called transistor ?

• The term transistor was derived from the words

TRANSFER & RESISTOR.

• Transfers input signal current from a low

resistance path to a high resistance path.
February 13, 2025 5
 N-P-N transistor

C
C
Collector

N Collector Base
Junction JC

P B
B
Emitter Base Base
Junction JE
N
E
Emitter
E

February 13, 2025 6

 The BJT – Bipolar Junction Transistor

npn pnp

E n p n C E p n p C

Cross Section C Cross Section C

B B
B B
Schematic Schematic
Symbol Symbol
E E

Normally Emitter layer is heavily doped, Base layer is lightly doped and Collector
layer has Moderate doping.
February 13, 2025 7
 transistor currents

Collector Base
Junction JC

P B
B
Emitter Base Base
Junction JE
N
E
Emitter
E

February 13, 2025 8

 Number of P-N junctions and equivalent circuit

E
Emitter

N E

B P B
Base

N C

C
Collector

February 13, 2025 9

 An unbiased Transistor – Depletion region
• For an unbiased transistor no external power supplies are
connected to it

Base
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +
Emitter collector
+ - - - - +
N P N
+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +

Depletion Depletion
region region
February 13, 2025 10
 Transistor biasing in the active region

Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base application

No. operation junction junction
1 Cutoff region Reverse Reverse transistor is OFF
biased biased
2 Saturation Forward Forward transistor is ON
region biased biased
3 Active Forward Reverse Amplifier
region biased biased

February 13, 2025 11

 Transistor operation in the active region P-N-P
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

P N P

Emitter collector
N P

holes emitted
holes collected

RE RC
conventional
current
-
+ + -
Base

Conventional
current
February 13, 2025 VEE IE = IC + IB VCC 12
 Transistor configuration
• Depending on which terminal is made common to input and
output port there are three possible configurations of the
transistor. They are as follows:

• Common base configuration

• Common emitter configuration

• Common collector configuration

February 13, 2025 13

 Transistor operation in the active region N-P-N
common base configuration
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

Emitter collector
N P N

Electron emitted
Electron collected

(injected collector current) RC

RE Direction
Direction Conventional Direction
Conventional Current IB Conventional
Current IE Current IC (INJ)
- + - +
Base

Emitter electron
current
February 13, 2025 VEE VCC 14
 Transistor operation in the active region N-P-N
common base configuration
JEB JCB

+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +
Emitter collector
+ - - - - +
N N
+ - - - - +
+ - - P - - +

Depletion Depletion RC
region region
ICBO is a reverse saturation IC=ICBO
VCC
Current flowing due to the +
Base -
Minority carriers between
Collector and base when the
Emitter is open. ICBO flows due to the reverse ICBO
Biased collector base junction. Is a collector to base leakage current
February 13, 2025 15
ICBO is neglected as compared to IC With open emitter
 Current relations in CB configuration

• Current amplification factor ( αdc)

• the current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current
due to the injection of total emitter current

IC = IC(INJ) + ICBO
αdc = IC(INJ) / IE
IC(INJ) = αdc IE
IC = αdcIE + ICBO

But ICBO is negligibly small

IC = αdcIE

Therefore the current amplification

αdc= IC / IEfactor
February 13, 2025 16
 Characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration
Input characteristics VCB
VCB
4V
8V
IE IE
E C
N P N

- +
RE VBE JE JC
+ VCB =8V ΔIE

- + -

B
VEE

IE VBE
E C ΔVBE
- +
VBE Input resistance
RE
VCB =8V Ri = ΔVBE / ΔIE
+
- + -
As the change in emitter current is very large for a
February 13, 2025 B Small change in input voltage, the input resistance
17
VEE Ri is small
 Characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration
“Early effect” or “base width modulation”.

zero effective base width

At larger values of VCB Wider Depletion
Region for larger values of VCB

JE JC

- - - - - - +
- - - - - - +
Emitter collector
- - -
Base - - - +
Emitter Collector
N P- - - - - - + N
- - - - - - +

Total base width VCB increases extremely

 For extremely large VCB the effective base width may be reduced to zero,
causing voltage breakdown of a transistor.
 This phenomenon is known as punch through
February 13, 2025 18
 Characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration
Output characteristics
IC Active region
Constant
IE=3mA
(mA) (high output dynamic
C
E N P N IC resistance)

+ 3 IE=3 mA
RE JE JC VCB RC 2 IE=2 mA

- + - + 1 IE=1 mA
IC=ICBO
IE=0
B
VEE VCC
-1 0 5 10 VCB

Constant IE=3mA IC C Cutoff region

E Both the junctions
+ are reverse biased
-
VCB RC
RE VEB
- saturation region
+
Both the junctions
- + - +
are forward biased

February 13, 2025

VEE B VCC 19
 Characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration
Transfer characteristics

IC (mA)
VCB constant
4

Slope = ΔIC / ΔIE = αdc

2

0 1 2 3 4
IE (mA)

α dc = ΔIC / ΔIE
February 13, 2025 20
 Characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration
Input characteristics
C
•It is a graph of input current (IB)
IC
versus input voltage (VBE) at a constant
output voltage (VCE). N

IB
(μA) VCE
VCE = 4V 10V constant
IB JC +
P
B VCC
ΔIB JE
-
Ri=ΔVBE/ΔIB RB VBE
ΔVBE
N
VCE Constant +
VBB

0 0.7 1 2 IE
VBE
- E
The value of dynamic input resistance “Ri”
February 13, 2025 N-P-N Transistor 21
is low for CE
 Characteristics of a transistor in CE
configuration
Output characteristics
• It is a graph of output current (Ic)
versus output voltage (VCE) at a C
IC
constant input current (IB)
βdc = IC /IB RE
Saturation Active
region region
IC IB = 4μA
+
(mA)
4 B
IB = 4μA
3
IB = 3μA VBE VCE -
RB VCC
2
IB = 2μA
VBB + IE
1 IB = 0

1 2 3 4 E
VCE -
N-P-N Transistor
February 13, 2025 Cutoff region 22
 Characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration
Transfer characteristics

IC (mA)
VCE constant
4

Slope = ΔIC / ΔIB = βac

2

0 1 2 3 4
IB (μA)

β ac = ΔIC / ΔIB

February 13, 2025 β dc = IC / IB VCE constant 23

 Comparison of configurations
Sr.
No.
Parameter CB CE CC
1 Common terminal Base Emitter Collector
between input and
output
Conduction Angle 0o 180 o 0o
2 Input current IE IB IB
3 Output current IC IC IE
4 Current gain αDC = IC/IE βDC = IC/IB
γ = I /I E B

Less than one High

HIGH
5 Input Voltage Veb Vbe Vbc
6 Output voltage Vcb Vce Vec
7 Current gain Less than High High
February 13, 2025 unity 24
 Transistor Biasing

• What is meant by dc biasing of a transistor ?

• Depending on the application, a transistor is to be operated in

any of the three regions of operation namely cutoff, active and
saturation region.

• To operate the transistor in these regions the two junctions of a

transistor should be forward or reverse bias

February 13, 2025 25

 DC Load Line
IC = [-1/RC] VCE + VCC/RC
• and substituting IC = 0 in above equation C

• VCE = VCC  or point “B” IC

RC

DC load line
IC +
(mA)
IC
(MAX)
A -
IB = 4μA VCE VCC
3
IB = 3μA

2
IB = 2μA

1 IB = 0 E
VCE
1 2 3 4 B N-P-N Transistor
February 13, 2025 VCE=VCC 26
February 13, 2025 27
 Typical Junction Voltages
Voltage Silicon Transistor Germanium Transistor
VBE (Cut-off) 0 -0.1V

VBE (Cut-in) 0.5v 0.1V

VBE (Active) 0.7V 0.2V

VBE (Saturation) 0.8V 0.3V

VCE (Saturation) 0.2V 0.1V

February 13, 2025 28

 Biasing circuits
To avoid a shift of Q-point, bias-stabilization is
necessary. Various biasing ckts can be used for this
purpose.

•Fixed bias
•Collector-to-base bias
•Self Biased or Voltage divider bias
•Fixed bias with emitter resistor
•Emitter bias

February 13, 2025 29

 Single Stage RC Coupled CE Amplifier
+VCC

R1 & R2 are Biasing C1 & C2 are

Resistor Coupling
R1 RC Capacitors
C2
VO
Amplified signal
C1 output Signal
Vi
Signal to be
Amplified RL

R2 RE CE

February 13, 2025 Bypass Capacitor 30

 BJT Switch
• When operated in
saturation, the BJT
acts as a closed
switch.
• When operated in
cutoff, the BJT acts as
an open switch.

February 13, 2025 31

 MOSFET

February 13, 2025 32

 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS ( FET)

• FETs are the uni polar devices because, unlike BJTs

that use both electron and hole current, they operate
only with one type of charge carrier.

• The two main types of FET’s are -

 Junction Field Fffect Transistor (JFET) and

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET)

February 13, 2025 33

 Current Controlled & Voltage Controlled Devices

February 13, 2025 34

 Field Effect Transistors - Classification

February 13, 2025 35

 MOSFET (IGFET)
• The MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor) is the category of FET.

• The MOSFET differs from the JFET in that it has no PN

junction structure; instead, the gate of the MOSFET is
insulated from the channel by a silicon dioxide (Sio2) layer.

• Two basic types of MOSFETS are :

 Depletion ( D ) MOSFET and
 Enhancement ( E ) MOSFET

• Because of the insulated gate, these devices are also called

as IGFET.
February 13, 2025 36
 ENHANCEMENT MOSFET ( E-MOSFET)

MOSFET was
invented by
Atalla & Dawon
at Bell Labs in
195913, 2025
February 37
 Linear & Saturation Regions

February 13, 2025 38

February 13, 2025 39
 Transfer & Drain Characteristics

February 13, 2025 40

 BJT MOSFET
It is a current controlled device. It is a voltage controlled device.
It is a bipolar device (Current flows due It is a unipolar device (Current flows
to both majority & minority carriers). due to only majority carriers).
Thermal Runaway can damage the BJT Thermal Runaway does not take place
Input resistance (Ri) is very low. Output resistance (Ro) is very high.
Transfer characteristics are linear in Transfer characteristics are non-linear in
nature. nature.
BJT is More sensitive than MOSFET MOSFET is less Sensitive
AC Voltage Gain is HIGH AC Voltage Gain is Less
Bigger in size. Smaller in size.
Regions of operation: Saturation – ON Regions of operation: Ohmic – ON
Switch , Cut off – OFF Switch Switch ,Saturation – Amplifier ,
Active – Amplifier Cut off – OFF Switch
It is more noisy. It is less noisy.
Switching speed is less. Switching speed is high.
Symbol Symbol
February 13, 2025 41
 Operational
Amplifier

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is

a DC coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with
a differential input and usually, a single-ended output

February 13, 2025 42

• Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier which is uses
a number of amplifier stages interconnected to each
other in a complicated manner.

• The amplifier which could be configured to perform a

variety of operations such as amplification, addition,
subtraction, differentiation and integration.

• Hence the name is operational amplifier (OP-AMP)

• The integrated Op-amp offers all the advantages of

monolithic integrated circuits such as small size, high
reliability, reduced cost, less power consumption.

• IC 741 is extremely popular and was used in a variety of

applications.
February 13, 2025 43
 Pin configuration of OP-AMP IC 741

February 13, 2025 44

 Symbol and terminal

+VCC positive supply voltage

Inverting input 2
- 7
6 Output
741
3
+
Non-Inverting input 4

-VEE negative supply voltage

The Operational Amplifier (op amp) was invented in the 40's.
Bell Labs filed a patent in 1941 and many consider the first
practical op amp to be the vacuum tube K2-W invented in 1952
byFebruary
George13, 2025
Philbrick. 45
 Op-amp symbols and packages.

Thomas L. Floyd
February
Electronic 13,6e2025
Devices, and Electronic 46
Devices: Electron Flow Version, 4e
 Manufactures of OP-AMP IC 741
• The manufactures of Op-amp ICs are companies
like Fairchild, National semiconductor, Motorola,
Texas Instruments and signetics.

• The identifying initials for some other companies

are as follows:
1. National semiconductors : LM 741
2. Motorola : MC 741
3. RCA : CA 741
4. Texas instruments : SN 52741
5. Signetics : N 5741
February 13, 2025 47
Ideal differential amplifier

•An ideal differential amplifier is expected to amplify the

differential signal present between its two input signal.

•It is also the basic stage of an integrated Op-amp with

differential input.

Ideal
Vd Differential
Amplifier Vo = V1 – V2
+ +

V1 V2
- -

February 13, 2025 48

 Ideal
Vd Differential
Amplifier Vo = V1 – V2
+ +

V1 V2
- -

Differential gain -

• Vo = Ad ( V1 – V2 )
Where Ad is called as the differential gain.
• The differential gain can be defined as the gain with which the
differential amplifier amplifies the differential signal.
Vo = Ad Vd as Vd = V1 – V2
Gain Ad = Vo / Vd
Ad (dB) =10 log10 [ Vo / Vd ]
February 13, 2025 49
 Ideal
Vd Differential
Amplifier Vo = V1 – V2
+ +

V1 V2
- -

Common mode signal

• A common signal to both the input terminals ( i.e. V1=V2=V) is

called as common mode signal.

• The output voltage produced by an ideal differential amplifier

is zero for the common mode signal.

February 13, 2025 50

 Block diagram of a typical OP-AMP
on-inverting
nput + Level
Input Intermediate Output Output
shifting
nverting - Stage stage Stage
stage
nput

Dual input Dual input Such as Complementary

Balanced unbalanced Emitter follower Symmetry
Output Output Using constant Push-pull
Differential Differential Current source amplifier
amplifier amplifier

February 13, 2025 51

February 13, 2025 52
 Input and output signals 1800 phase shift when the input signal is
applied to the inverting (-) terminal

+VCC

input
Inverting input
2
- 7
6 Vo
741
3
+
4
Inverted Output signal

-VEE

February 13, 2025 53

 Input and output signals 00 phase shift when the input signal is
applied to the Non-inverting (+) terminal

+VCC

2
- 7
6 Vo
741
3
+
input Non-Inverting
4
input Non-Inverted Output signal

-VEE

February 13, 2025 54

 Ideal
Vd Differential
Amplifier Vo = V1 – V2
+ +

V1 V2
- -

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

•Common mode rejection ration (CMRR) is the ability of a
differential amplifier to reject the common mode signal
successfully.
•CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential gain Ad and
common mode gain Ac. It is denoted by letter “ρ”
•CMRR = ρ = Ad / Ac
•Ideally CMRR should be infinite and practically it should be as
high as possible.
February 13, 2025 55
 Equivalent circuit of an OP-AMP

+ VCC

Inverting input
-

Ro Output
Vd Ri
+ +
AVVd
+ Vo RL
-
Non-Inverting input
-

-VEE

February 13, 2025 56

 The ideal OP-AMP

8
Ri
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVd
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

mportant characteristics of Op-Amp

. Infinite voltage gain ( AV )
8

the open loop gain of an ideal OP-AMP is denoted by Av. It is the

differential voltage gain and its value for an ideal OP-AMP is infinite.
February 13, 2025 57
Vo = AVVD
 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVd
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

2. Infinite input resistance (Ri  ∞)

the input resistance Ri of an ideal OP-amp is infinite. Due to this,
the current flowing in each input terminal will be zero.
IB1= 0 IB2= 0
due to infinite input resistance, almost any source can drive it and
there is no loading of the source.
February 13, 2025 58
 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVd
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

3. Zero output resistance ( RO = 0 )

the output resistance Ro of an ideal OP-amp is zero. Due to this,
the ideal Op-amp can handle infinite number of other devices.

February 13, 2025 59

 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVd
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

4. Zero offset voltage

in practical Op-amps a small output voltage is present even though
both the inputs V1 ad V2 are having a zero value.
This voltage is called as the offset voltage.
for ideal Op-amp the offset voltage is zero.
That means output voltage is zero when input voltage is zero.
February 13, 2025 60
 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVD
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

5. Infinite Bandwidth
Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies over which all
the signal frequencies are amplified almost equally.
The bandwidth of an ideal Op-amp is infinite. So it can amplify any
frequency from zero to infinite hertz.
Thus the gain of an ideal amplifier is constant from zero to infinite hertz.
February 13, 2025 61
 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVD
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

. Infinite CMRR
for an Op-amp, the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) id defined
as the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain.
CMRR is infinite for the ideal Op-amp.
hus the output voltage corresponding to the common mode noise is zero.
February 13, 2025 62
 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVD
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

. Infinite slew rate

the slew rate of an ideal Op-amp is infinite so that the output voltage
changes occur simultaneously with the input voltage changes.

February 13, 2025 63

 The ideal OP-AMP
Ri

8
IB2= 0
- Ro 0
V2

Zero differential Ro Output

Vd= 0 Ri Vo = AVVD
Input voltage +
AVVD
+
V1 - A

8
V
IB1= 0

. Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSRR).

PSSR is a parameter which specifies the degree of the dependence
of the Op-amp output on the changes in power supply output. For an
ideal Op-amp, PSRR = 0. that means the output voltage does not
Change due to fluctuation in supply voltage
February 13, 2025 64
 Important characteristics of OP-AMP IC 741

Sr. No. Characteristics Value for IC 741 Ideal value

1 Input resistance Ri 2 MΩ
2 Output resistance Ro 75 Ω 0

8
3 Voltage gain Av 2 X 105
4 Bandwidth BW 1 MHz

8
5 CMRR 90 dB

8
8
6 Slew rate S 0.5 V/μS
7 Input offset voltage 2 mV 0

8
8 PSRR 150 μV/V 0
9 Input bias current 50 nA 0
10 Input offset current 6 nA 0
February 13, 2025 65
 Open loop configuration of OP-AMP
• The meaning of open loop operation is that there is
absolutely no feedback present from the output to input.

Vo = Av Vd
+V(SAT)
-
a b
Vd Op amp 0
+ Vd
+ + Vo = Av Vd
1
V2 -V(SAT)

- -

February 13, 2025 66

 Open loop configuration of OP-AMP

February 13, 2025 67

Why Op-amp not used as an amplifier in the open
loop configuration ?
• Due to very large open loop gain, distortion is
introduced in the amplified output signal.
• The open loop gain does not remain constant, it
varies with change in temperature and power
supply.
• The bandwidth of an Op amp in open loop mode is
very very small – almost zero
• For this reason the Op-amp is not used in practice
as an amplifier.
• However the Op-amp in open loop configuration
Februaryis used in application such as comparator.
13, 2025 68
 Close loop configuration of OP-AMP
• In the closed loop configuration some kind
of “feedback” is introduced in the circuit.
• A part of output is returned back or fed back
to the input.

• Types of feedback
 Positive feedback or Regenerative feedback
 Negative feedback or Degenerative feedback.

February 13, 2025 69

Positive feedback or regenerative feedback

• If the feedback signal and the original input signal

are in phase with each other then it is called as the
positive feedback.

• Positive feedback is used in the application such as

“Oscillators” and Schmitt triggers or regenerative
comparators.

February 13, 2025 70

Negative feedback or Degenerative feedback

• If the signal is fed back to the input and the original

input signal are 1800 out of phase, then it is called as
the negative feedback.

• In the application of Op-amp as an amplifier, the

negative feedback is used.

February 13, 2025 71

 Negative feedback or Degenerative feedback

• In the amplifier circuits using Op-amp, a feedback resistor RF

is connected between the output and inverting terminal as
shown in figure to introduced a negative feedback.
• As the voltages V2 and VO are 1800 out of phase, a fraction of
output voltage fed back to the input via RF will be 1800 out of
phase with the input.
RF

Feedback resistor
input
Output
V2 2
-
6 Vo
OP-AMP
V1 3
+
February 13, 2025 72
 Advantages of Negative feedback
• Negative feedback is used in the amplifier circuits as they
provide the following improvements in the operation of an
amplifier:

• It stabilizes the gain.

• Reduces the distortion.
• Increases the bandwidth.
• Changes the values of input and output resistances.
• Reduces the effects of variation in temperature and supply
voltage on the output of the Op-amp.

February 13, 2025 73

 Virtual short

Ri +VCC

8
I=0
V2 -

Output
Vd Ri Vo = AVVD

+
V1

-VEE

The input impedance Ri of an Op-amp is ideally infinite.

Hence current “I” flowing from one input terminal to the other will
be zero. Thus the voltage drop across Ri will be zero and both the
input terminals will be at same potential, in other words they are
virtually
February 13, 2025shorted to each other. 74
 The Inverting Amplifier
- input
+ VS
RF
I
t
V2 0
- -
+ IB2 = 0
R1 Vd
VS + OP-AMP
VO
Vo
V1 + AV = t

8
0
-

Expression for the closed loop voltage gain (AVF)

AVF = - RF / R1

The negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 1800

Between the input and output voltages.
February 13, 2025 75
 The Non-Inverting Amplifier
- +R -
+ input
R1 F
VS
V2
-
I2 = 0 t
0
OP-AMP
I1 = 0
Vo
V1 + AV =

8
+ VO
VS t
0
-

As input impedance of ideal Op-amp is infinite, the current

entering into both the input terminals of
Op-amp will have zero values. (I1 = I2 = 0 )

February 13, 2025 76

 The Voltage follower (unity gain buffer)
+ - +R = 0 -
F
R1 =

8
V2
-
I2 = 0
OP-AMP
I1 = 0
Vo
V1 + AV =

8
+
VS

When R1 is infinite and RF = 0 the non-inverting amplifier

gets converted into a voltage follower or unity gain.

February 13, 2025 77

 Conclusion
• Read the Instruction Manuals of equipment i.e. Car,
Washing m/c, Microwave oven, Cell phone, Laptop etc.
• BJT is used rarely.
• MOSFET is matured technology & used everywhere.
• MOSFET ckts have low dissipations, high swing &
integration.
• Device / Ckt / Chip / Application designers are well
respected. Less effect of recession.
• Classrooms may diminish; Hands on has only meaning.
• Knowledge of E&TC is must for every branch.
• Opamp is hot topic forever !
February 13, 2025 78