NORTHERN INDIA TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

(Linked to Ministry of Textiles, Government of India)

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BEC 101
B TECH FIRST YEAR

Sourabh Jain
Electrical Engineer/Energy Auditor/Assistant Professor
Northern India Textile Research Association
 Text Book for Reference
• Millman, Halkias “Electronics Devices and
Circuit”.
• H.S Kalsi “ Electronics and instrumentation”
• George Kennedy “ Electronics Communication
System”
• Robert L. Boylestad “Electronics Devices and
circuit theory”
 Unit- 1
• Semiconductor Diode:
• Depletion layer, V-I characteristics,
ideal and practical Diodes, Diode Equivalent Circuits, Zener
Diodes breakdown mechanism (Zener and avalanche)
• Diode Application:
• Diode Configuration, Half and Full Wave rectification,
Clippers, Clampers, Zener diode as shunt regulator, Voltage-
Multiplier Circuits
• Special Purpose two terminal Devices:
• Light-Emitting Diodes, Photo Diodes, Varactor Diodes, Tunnel
Diodes, Liquid-Crystal Displays.
Energy Band
Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure
Semiconductor)
Pure Silicon
In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. A common dopant for n-type silicon is phosphorus or arsenic. The
electrical conductivity is due to the electron. When a potential difference is applied
across the n-type of semiconductor, the electrons appear to move from a Negative
end to a Positive end.
In p-type semiconductors, Holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the
minority carriers. A common dopant for p-type silicon is Borons or aluminiums. The
electrical conductivity is due to the hole. When a potential difference is applied
across the p-type of semiconductor, the holes appear to move from a positive end
to a negative end. In p-type semiconductors
Majority electron from n side diffuse to p side and majority holes will diffuse from p side
to n side because of concentration difference. In n type electron concentration is more
and hole concentration is less and in p type hole concentration is more and electron
concentration is less. In order to reach equilibrium in p-n junction this diffusion take
place
Electric field is created (coulombs law) due to positive and negative immobile charge
carrier in depletion layer which result in depletion voltage or Barrier potential (0.7 for Si
and 0.3 for Ge)
This electric field resist the further flow of electron from n to p and holes from p to n
as the polarity of the field is opposite to the polarity of p and n.( p is positive polarity
and n is negative polarity)
In a PN junction diode, the reverse saturation current is due to the diffusive flow of
minority electrons from the p-side to the n-side and the minority holes from the n-side
to the p-side. it is a current which is produced due to the small reverse voltage when
pn junction diode is reverse biased.
 Ideal Diode
An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when
voltage is applied forward biased and like a perfect insulator when
voltage is applied reverse biased. So when positive voltage is applied
across the anode to the cathode, the diode conducts forward current
instantly
 Practical Diode
Ideal diode starts allowing the electric current, once the forward
voltage is applied. However, the real diode behaves differently.
The real diodes do not allow the electric current, if the forward
voltage is less than the cut-in voltage. However, if the forward voltage
applied on the real diode reaches the cut-in voltage, it starts allowing
the electric current.
When the forward voltage is applied on the real diode, it does not
allow the electric current up to a certain voltage because
the Depletion region present at the p-n junction block the electric
current.
However, once it reaches that voltage, real diode starts allowing the
electric current. In other words, if the voltage applied on the real
diode reaches 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 for germanium, the electric
current rises suddenly. The voltage at which real diodes starts
allowing the electric current is called cut-in voltage.
 Reverse biased real diode
Under reverse bias, the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-type semiconductor and the positive terminal
of the battery is connected to the n-type semi-conductor. When
the reverse voltage is applied on the real diode, the free electrons
at the n-side moves away from the p-n junction and attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery. Similarly, the holes at
the p-side moves away from the p-n junction and attracted
towards the negative terminal of the battery. As a result, the width
of the depletion region increases.

This depletion region blocks the majority carrier current (free

electrons at n-side and holes at p-side). However, it allows the
minority charge carrier current (free electrons at p-side and holes at n-
side).
This minority charge carrier current in the reverse biased real diode is
called reverse saturation current.
In the reverse biased real diode, the width of the depletion region
increases with the increase in voltage up to a certain point. If it
reaches that point, junction breaks down and reverse current
increases rapidly. The voltage at which the junction breaks down is
called the breakdown voltage.

Forward Characteristic of practical diode Reverse Characteristic of practical diode

Diode A.C Model

In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are,
Transition capacitance (CT)
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. It is denoted as C D.
In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition
capacitance. Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.

The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and
minority holes near the depletion region.
When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons (majority
carriers) in the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with the holes. In
the similar way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-region and recombines with
electrons.

The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the p-
region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes (majority
carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the n-region will become
minority carriers of the n-region.

A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will be
accumulated near the depletion region before they recombine with the majority
carriers. As a result, a large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion
region.

In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the transition
capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence, transition
capacitance is neglected in forward biased diode
Transition capacitance (CT )
The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called transition
capacitance. The transition capacitance is also known as depletion region
capacitance, junction capacitance or barrier capacitance. Transition capacitance is
denoted as CT.

The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,

CT = ε A / W
Where,
ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region
 Avalanche Breakdown
The P and N-type materials of the PN junction are not perfect, and they have some
impurities in it, i.e., the p-type material has some electrons, and the N-type
material has some hole in it. The width of the depletion region varies.

Moreover some free holes in n-side and some free electrons in p-side are
generated by thermal effect, as increase in temperature cause free electron hole
pair.

When reverse voltage is applied to p-n junction diode the electrical field across the
depletion region increases. This high electric field exists across the depletion, causes
increase in the velocity of minority charge carrier crossing the depletion region. That
results in increase in kinetic energy of minority charge carrier. These carriers collide with
the atoms of the crystal. Because of the violent collision, the charge carrier takes out the
electrons from the atom.
The collision increases the electron-hole pair. As the electron-hole induces in the
high electric field, they are quickly separated and collide with the other atoms of
the crystals. The process is continuous in multiplicated manner and heavy current
flow in reverse bias. This process is known as the Avalanche breakdown. After the
breakdown, the junction cannot regain its original position because the diode is
completely burnt off.
Zener Breakdown or Zener effect
A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either
a forward or reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n
junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain specified
voltage is reached called as Zener Breakdown Voltage. Due to heavy doping in Zener
diode its depletion width is very narrow (small) and electric field across the junction
is very high
When a PN Junction diode is highly doped, the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner
than that in a normally doped diode. Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or
electric field strength across the depletion layer is quite high. If the reverse voltage is
continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons from the covalent bonds
within the depletion region come out and make the depletion region conductive. This
breakdown is called Zener breakdown.

The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied reverse
voltage across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive path to
the current through it hence, there is no chance of further avalanche breakdown in it.
Difference between Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown

•The main difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown is their
mechanism of occurrence. Zener breakdown occurs because of the high electric field
whereas, the avalanche breakdown occurs because of the collision of free electrons
with atoms.

•Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs at a lower voltage level then avalanche

breakdown.

The doping concentration is high at the junction of zener effect while the doping at
the junction is minimum in avalanche effect.

•The Zener breakdown is much sharper than avalanche breakdown.

•In Zener effect the depletion region is thin while in avalanche effect the depletion
region is thick.

•In Zener effect the electric field is strong. while in avalanche effect the electric field
is weak.
Diode Configuration Series configuration Parallel configuration
Diode is configured in three ways
•Series configuration
•Parallel configuration
•Series- parallel configuration
Graphical Method is not in syllabus

Assume VT =0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge in Forward Bias

Assume I=0 for VD<VT and diode is in reverse bias

In the above circuit the applied voltage is 0.5 V which is less then 0.7 v so the diode will
not be ON

I=0

Diode series configuration

Apply KVL
Voltage across 1K ohms resistor is
5V=0.7V + 0.7V + i x 1k
VR= 3.6 m amp x 1 k = 3.6 V
i= (5-1.4)V/1k

I = 3.6/1k = 3.6 m Amp

Solve the assignment problems

Hint: KVL Equation

Hint: Assume VT =0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V
10 V = 4 x I + 0.7V + ix(3 x 103) - 5 V
for Ge in Forward Bias
Diode Parallel Configuration

Assume both the diodes are same hence ID1 = ID2

Apply KVL
10V = 1 k x I + Vo
I= (10V-Vo )/1k
Vo =0.7 V
I= 9.3 m amps
ID1 = ID2 = I/2=4.67 m Amps
Assignment Problem

Same type of problem is given in Boylestad book

Half and full wave Rectification
In Half Wave Rectification, when the AC supply is applied at the input, a positive
half cycle appears across the load, whereas the negative half cycle is suppressed.
This can be done by using the semiconductor PN junction diode. The diode allows
the current to flow only in one direction. Thus, converts the AC voltage into DC
voltage.
The AC supply to be rectified is generally given through a transformer. The transformer
is used to step down or step up the main supply voltage as per the requirement.

Operation:
When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage (Vin) shown in the figure below
appears across the terminal AB at the secondary winding.

During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive with respect to B and the diode
is forward biased. Therefore, it conducts and current flows through the load resistor
RL. This current varies in magnitude as shown in the wave diagram shown below.

Thus, a positive half cycle of the input

voltage appears across the load resistor
RL shown in the figure below. While the
negative half cycle is clipped off (removed)
at the output as diode is reverse bias
In Full Wave Rectification, when the AC supply is applied at the input, during both the half-
cycles (i.e., positive as well as negative), current flows through the load in the same
direction. This can be achieved by using crystal diodes. The two diodes conduct the current
alternately.

To obtain the same direction of flow of current in the output during positive as well as the
negative half cycle of input, the two circuits are used. They are named as follows:-

•Center Tapped rectifier

•Bridge Rectifier
Center Tapped rectifier
 +
-

During Positive half cycle of input voltage D1 conduct (ON) and D2 is Reverse
bias (OFF)
 During Negative half cycle of input voltage D2 conduct (ON) and D1 is Reverse bias
(OFF)

So in this way from the sin wave at the input we will get this kind on an output from
center tapped rectifier
This circuit does not involved any center Tapping transformer and hence size, weight
and cost is reduced.
During Positive half cycle of input voltage D2 and D4 conduct (ON) and D1 and
D3 is Reverse bias (OFF)
During Negative half cycle of input voltage D1 and D3 conduct (ON) and D2 and
D4 is Reverse bias (OFF)
Direction of current remain same during both the cycle of input voltage at the
output
Clipper Circuits

Definition: Clipper circuits are the circuits that clip off or removes a portion of an input
signal, without causing any distortion to the remaining part of the waveform. These are
also known as clippers, clipping circuits, limiters, slicers etc.

Two type of clipper circuit

•Series clipper (Negative clipper and positive clipper)
•Parallel clipper (Negative clipper and positive clipper)
We assume that the diode is ideal

During
the
positive
half
cycle

Diode is ON
and act as short
circuit i.e Vout=0
During Diode is OFF as
the it is reverse bias
Negative and act as open
half cycle circuit i.e
Vout=Vin

So the over all output is

Positive half of the input voltage has been clipped so it is Positive clipper circuit
Reverse the direction of diode

During Diode is OFF as

the it is reverse bias
positive and act as open
half circuit i.e
cycle Vout=Vin

During Diode is ON and act as short

the circuit i.e Vout=0. So
Negative negative cycle is clipped off
half cycle hence it is negative clipper
circuit
 So the over all output is

Negative half of the input voltage has been clipped so it is Negative clipper circuit
Positive clipper circuit Negative clipper circuit
Series Clipper circuit

Diode is forward
bias i.e ON
Vout = Vin

Negative clipper circuit

Diode is Reverse
bias i.e OFF
Vout = 0
Reverse the direction of diode

Diode is Reverse
bias i.e OFF
Vout = 0
Positive clipper circuit

Diode is forward
bias i.e ON
Vout = Vin
In the above waveform the DC level is shifted to positive side hence it is
called as positive clamper circuit
Similarly if the DC level shifts towards the negative side it is called as negative
clamper circuit

Negative clamper circuit

Clamper circuit is made up of
Analyze the circuit in order to understand how we are getting this output.

Assume RC time constant >> T, where T is the time period of the input signal

Diode D will act as open circuit (OFF) during the positive half of input signal
 Vout

During the first positive half cycle the diode is reverse bias and current will flow
from this path
Considering the RC time constant is very large as value of R L is very high. The
capacitor will not be able to charge and Vout=Vin i.e output will follow the input
signal

During
negative half
cycle the
polarity of
input voltage
gets reverse
 Diode D will act as short circuit (ON) during the Negative half of input signal

Effectively this Load resister RL will also get short circuited and current flow from this
path

Capacitor will charge to Vm from the same path in zero time as RC time constant is
zero because RL becomes zero.
 Voltage at the terminal a and b is given by
Vab = Vin + Vm --------1

b
so at Vin= -Vm : Vab =0 from eq-1
at 0 > Vin > –Vm : Vab >=0 and diode is open circuit
at Vin= 0 : Vab =Vm

At this point

And at Vin= Vm : Vab =2Vm

So in a steady state condition the output will be

Reversing the direction of the diode to get negative clamper circuit

 So in the above circuit if we give this input
the output will look like this

The whole input waveform will be shifted in the negative half

Now Analyze the circuit

During the positive half cycle the diode is short circuit and capacitor will charge to peak
value of voltage i.e Vm from this path with zero time as RC time constant of capacitor is
zero (RL =0)and output voltage Vout=0
Vab = Vin -Vm --------1

During the negative half cycle Vab = -Vin -Vm --------2

Diode act as a open circuit
For Vin=-Vm Vout = 2Vm
 Diode is again forward bias and act as a short circuit (ON)

Capacitor will again charge to Vm with zero time and Vout =0

Overall output waveform will be look like

The whole output shifted to the negative half in Negative clamper circuit with
maximum voltage of -2Vm in the output.
Zener diode: works in Reverse bias in order to get voltage regulation

Zener
diode
Symbol

 This make the Zener diode useful in a

voltage regulator, or a constant-voltage
reference circuit
 The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode
is nearly constant over a wide range of
reverse-bias currents.
Izmax=IZM= max allowable current from zener diode
IZmin=IZK= min current from zener diode at
breakdown
If we go beyond Izmax then zener diode will get
burn.

Simple Voltage regulation circuit from

Zener diode is given as
In order to protect zener diode from reaching to Izmax we use current limiting resistance
Rs as shown below

Zener equivalent
circuit
The value of Rz is
very small we can
neglect it.

Simple Zener voltage

regulator circuit
Assignment Problem
Voltage Multiplier Circuit
The Voltage Multiplier is a type of diode rectifier circuit which can produce an
output voltage many times greater than of the applied input voltage

Voltage multiplier
are generally of 3
type
 In voltage doubler
circuit output is
two times of the
input voltage
maximum value

Analyze:
During the positive half cycle Diode D1 will be Forward bias and diode D2 will be
reverse bias and capacitor C1 will charge to Vm as given in fig below
During the negative half cycle Diode D2 will be Forward bias and diode D1 will be
reverse bias and capacitor C2will charge to -2Vm as given in fig below

Apply KVL
-Vin-Vm=Vc2
Vin maximum
value is Vm
So Vc2= -2Vm
In the same way
Voltage tripler and
quadrupler circuit
works.
Varactor Diode

A Varactor Diode (also known with the names Varicap Diode, Varactor Diode, Tuning
Diode) is a p-n junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under varying
reverse bias voltage across its terminals.

In other words, it is a specially designed semiconductor diode whose capacitance at

the p-n semiconductor junction changes with the change in voltage applied across
its terminals. And because it is a diode that can behave as a variable capacitor, it is
named as a Varactor Diode in short.

Symbolic Representation
when reverse bias voltage is applied across the diode, respective charge carriers
accumulate on either side of the depletion layer. This makes the diode acquire some
capacitance and it is termed as junction capacitance.

A Varactor Diode is specially designed to enhance this ability to store charge carriers
when reverse bias is applied, thus allowing it to act as a capacitor.
The junction capacitance is inversely proportional to the width of depletion layer i.e. if
the width of depletion layer is less, the capacitance will be more, and vice versa. So if we
need to increase the capacitance of a varactor diode, the reverse bias voltage should be
decreased. It causes the width of depletion layer to decrease, resulting in higher
capacitance. Similarly increasing the reverse bias voltage should decrease the
capacitance.

This ability to get different values of capacitances just by changing the voltage applied is
the biggest advantage of a varactor diode when compared with a normal variable
capacitor.

Characteristics
Equivalent Circuit

Applications

Automatic Frequency Controllers (AFCs)

Ultra High Frequency Television sets
High frequency Radios
Frequency Multipliers
Band Pass Filters
Harmonic Generators
Photodiode

It is a form of light sensor that converts light energy into electrical voltage or current.
Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN junction.

Between the p (positive) and n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The
photo diode accepts light energy as input to generate electric current.

It is also called as Photo detector, photo sensor or light detector. Photo diode
operates in reverse bias condition i.e. the p – side of the photodiode is connected
with negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n – side to the positive
terminal of battery.
Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.

Working of a Photodiode

When Photodiode is made reverse bias and light is fall on the intrinsic region of
photo diode, covalent bonds are ionized. This generates hole and electron pairs.
Photocurrents are produced due to generation of electron-hole pairs.

Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the
diode. When the photon enters the depletion region (intrinsic region) of diode, it
hits the atom with high energy. This results in release of electron from atom
structure and free electrons and hole are produced. These free electron and holes
will results in current from the photo diode
Application

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, medical devices and the receivers for infrared remote control devices
used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners

Tunnel Diode

A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode. The tunnel diode shows negative
resistance. When voltage value increases, current flow decreases. Tunnel diode works
based on Tunnel Effect.

Tunnel Diode symbol

Tunnel diode can work in both reverse and forward bias

A tunnel diode is also known as a Esaki diode
 Upto Point A increase in forward
voltage result in increase in
forward current.

From point A to B increase in

forward voltage result in
decrease in forward current. This
is called negative resistance
region.

Beyond valley point i.e from

point B tunnel diode behave as
normal PN junction diode.

In the reverse direction, the electrons will tunnel through a potential

barrier. Because of its high doping concentrations, tunnel diode acts
as an excellent conductor.
Applications of Tunnel Diode

•Tunnel diode can be used as a switch, amplifier, and oscillator.

•They are also used in oscillator circuits, and in FM receivers.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The LED is a PN Junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes
through it in the forward direction.

In the LED, the recombination of charge carrier takes place. The electron from the
N-side and the hole from the P-side are combined and gives the energy in the form
of heat and light. The LED is made of semiconductor material which is colourless,
and the light is radiated through the junction of the diode.
Application
•Used for TV back-lighting
•Uses in displays
•Used in traffic signal
•LEDs used in the dimming of lights

Working
When we apply forward bias in LED
the free electrons from n side move
toward the p-side and recombines
with the holes of p-side and releases
energy in the from of both light and
heat in LED.

While in normal PN Junction diode

the energy release during
recombination is in the form of
heat only.
 L.C.D
Stands for "Liquid Crystal Display." LCD is a flat panel display technology commonly
used in TVs and computer monitors. It is also used in screens for mobile devices,
such as laptops, tablets and smartphones.

Backlight

Horizontal
polarization
Crystal
Vertical
polarization
Pixel
liquid crystal
These crystal are
arrange in the
manner that they
turn the light in to
90 degree angle
Switch

When switch is open these crystals will

When switch is closed these be in twisted form and turn the light rays
crystals will align vertically onto 90 degree angle at output
At Off switch At On switch
Pixel will illuminate Pixel will not illuminate

In this figure all the three switch

are off hence all the pixel are
illumining and white color will
appear

Similarly if red and green are

illuminating while blue is off then
yellow color will appear . In this
way we can produce all color in
LCD