EE 371

MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS
 Outline
 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
 Basic Amplifier Characteristics
 Modeling the OpAmp
 Basic Applications Of The Opamp
 Differential Amplifiers
 Non-ideal Characteristics Of Opamps
 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

 Operational Amplifiers (OpAmps)

 One of the primary active devices in analog electronics, second
only to transistors.
 Used in low and intermediate frequency applications.
 Widely accepted due to their usefulness, predictability, and cost-
effectiveness.
 Fundamental for learning electronics circuit design and analysis.
 What Makes OpAmps Important?
 Easily configurable for various linear and non-linear functions.
 Originally developed with vacuum tubes, now integrated as
transistorized circuits.
 Applications And Concept of Opamps
Common Applications:
 Signal Processing: Filters, limiters, synthesizers.
 Communication Circuits: Oscillators, modulators, phase-locked loops.
 Analog/Digital Conversion: A/D and D/A converters.
 Mathematical Operations: Multipliers, dividers, adders.

 Concept:
 OpAmps are building blocks described by their terminal characteristics.
 Can be modeled using resistors, capacitors, and voltage sources
 Foundation for circuit design by interconnecting active and passive
components.
 Basic Amplifier Characteristics

 An amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal without

significantly altering its waveform

 Amplifiers are essential in electronic systems for signal processing,

communication, and control systems.
Gain
 Definition: The ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal amplitude.
 Formula:
Where is the gain, is the output voltage, and is the input voltage.
 Basic Amplifier Characteristics
Types of Gain:

 Current Gain:

Amplifier Characteristics
 Linearity: The output is directly proportional to the input within a specified
range.
 Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which the amplifier maintains a
consistent gain.
 Efficiency: The ratio of output power to total power consumed.
 Impedance Matching:
 Input Impedance (Rin): Should be high to prevent loading the source.
 Output Impedance (Rout): Should be low to drive loads effectively
  is the time delay,
 An amplifier introduces a time delay  is the output DC offset
between input and output signals due to Saturation and Limitations
propagation through internal components.  Power Supply Limitation: The maximum
output voltage is constrained by the
power supply voltage.
 Saturation: The output cannot exceed
the power supply range.
 Current Limitation: The output is limited
 The relationship is given by: if the power supply cannot provide
sufficient current.
where An amplifier has an open-loop gain of
 is the gain, 200,000 and an input voltage of 1mV.
Calculate the output voltage if the amplifier
 is the input signal, operates within its linear range.
 is the output signal, Solution,
Common OpAmps Practical Considerations
 µA741 (LM741, MC1741): Most  Input and Output Impedance:
commonly used general-purpose  High input impedance prevents
OpAmp.
loading effects.
 Low output impedance ensures
 OP-27, LF411: High-performance strong signal delivery.
OpAmps.  Noise and Distortion: Minimize external
noise sources and maintain linear
 LM324: Single-supply OpAmp. operation.
 Modeling the OpAmp

Modeling an operational amplifier

 Non-inverting Input (V⁺):
(OpAmp) involves understanding
its terminal voltages, currents, The voltage applied to the
and behavior under different non-inverting terminal.
configurations.  Inverting Input (V⁻): The
voltage applied to the
inverting terminal.
 Output Voltage : The
resulting voltage at the
output terminal.
 Power supply voltages:
(positive rail) and (negative
rail)
 Voltage and Current
Constraints
Voltage Constraints:
The ideal OpAmp follows the .
equation:

where:
 is the open-loop gain, which is
ideally very large.
The output voltage is limited by
the power supply:
If reaches these limits, the
OpAmp is said to be saturated.
 .
The Virtual Short Concept KEY NOTE:
In the linear operating region, the  OpAmp behavior is characterized
OpAmp enforces: by terminal voltages and currents.
 The output voltage is proportional to
Ideal OpAmp Assumptions the input difference but limited by
power rails.
 For analysis and circuit design,
 Ideal OpAmps assume infinite gain,
an ideal OpAmp is assumed to
have: infinite input resistance, and zero
 Infinite open-loop gain ) output resistance.
 Infinite input resistance )  Circuit theory concept.
 Zero output resistance )  The virtual short concept simplifies
circuit analysis.
 BASIC APPLICATIONS OF THE OPAMP

 Operational amplifiers (OpAmps) are widely used in various circuit

configurations to perform fundamental signal processing functions
such as amplification, summation, integration, and differentiation.
 We will treat the following OpAmp application:
 Inverting Amplifier
 Summing Amplifier
 Non-Inverting Amplifier
 Difference Amplifier
 Integrator
 Differentiator
 Inverting Amplifier
 The node voltage method of  The input voltage is applied through a resistor
analysis is applied at node 1,  The inverting input is connected to and the
feedback resistor
 The non-inverting input is grounded.
 Since is at virtual ground (  The output voltage is fed back to the inverting
terminal through​.

 Solving for the gain:

The negative sign indicates signal

inversion.
 Question 1

.
Find
 Summing Amplifier
Output Voltage Expression  Multiple input voltages, … are applied through
resistors …
 Applying KCL at the inverting  The inverting terminal is at virtual ground.
terminal  The feedback resistor controls the output
voltage scaling.
 Since is at virtual ground (

 Solving for
 Question 2
,
 Non-Inverting Amplifier
 The input signal ​is applied to the non-inverting
terminal.
 Applying KCL at the inverting  A voltage divider formed by and provides
feedback.
terminal:  The output voltage is fed back to the inverting
terminal.

 Solving for the gain:

 This amplifier is used in

applications requiring unity gain
buffering.
Question 3 and 4
Find
 Difference Amplifier
 Two input voltages, and , are applied
 Using voltage division: through resistor networks.
 The output voltage depends on the resistor
ratios.
 Applying KCL at node 1:

 Solving for
 Pay attention in class to get this part
😜😜😜
 Question 5
• .
 Question 6
.
 Integrator
Output Voltage Derivation  A resistor is connected to the input.
 Using KCL at node 1:  A capacitor is placed in the feedback loop
.
 Since, simplifying:

Solving for

 This circuit is used in analog

computing and signal processing.
 Question 7 and 8
An integrator contains a .
100 kΩ and 1Capacitor. If
the voltage applied to the
integrator input is 1V, what
is voltage present at the
integrator output after 1s?
 Differentiato
r Voltage Derivation
Output  A capacitor is connected to the input.
 Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) at the  A resistor is placed in the feedback loop.
inverting terminal:  The non-inverting terminal is grounded.

 Using the voltage constraint

 e output voltage is therefore,

 This shows that the output is the derivative of

the input.
 Applications
 Edge detection in signal processing
 High-pass filtering in audio circuits.
 Differential
Amplifiers Key Features
 A Differential Amplifier is an  Amplifies the difference between two input
essential circuit in analog signals.
electronics that amplifies the  Rejects common-mode signals (same signal on
both inputs).
difference between two input
 Used in signal processing, sensor applications,
signals while rejecting common-
and audio circuits.
mode noise.
 It forms the foundation of many
advanced circuits, including
instrumentation amplifiers.
 Differential Amplifiers
Working Principle To analyze the circuit, we apply Kirchhoff’s
Laws and Voltage Division.
 .  Voltage at Inverting Input (
 . Using the voltage divider rule:
 The feedback network
 Since the OpAmp operates in a closed-loop
maintains balance. configuration, the virtual short principle
 The output is proportional to applies, meaning the voltage at the non-
inverting input is equal to

 At node 1,
 Differential Amplifiers
 Substituting :

 Solving  This means the amplifier

scales the voltage difference
 If the resistor pairs are equal , the by a constant factor.
gain simplifies to:
 Differential Amplifiers
One of the most important properties of a differential
amplifier is its ability to reject common-mode noise.  Practical Applications
 Common-Mode Gain ()  Differential amplifiers are
If both inputs have the same voltage: widely used in:
 Instrumentation Amplifiers: High-
Then the output should ideally be zero. However, precision measurement circuits.
due to imperfections:  Audio Systems: Removing
unwanted noise and
interference.
 CMRR Definition
 Communication Systems: Signal
The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is processing in radio receivers.
given by:  Sensor Signal Conditioning:
Extracting weak differential
A higher CMRR means better noise rejection. signals from sensors.
 Question 9
The difference amplifier of Figure
. 1.20 is constructed with an ideal
OpAmp and 1% tolerance resistors
of nominal values 2.2 kand 5.1k
The resistors were measured and
found to have the following
resistance values: =2.195 k, k
Determine gain of the differential
amplifier and its common-mode
rejection ratio.

Figure 1.20
NON-IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OPAMPS

OpAmps exhibit non-ideal characteristics that can significantly

impact circuit performance.
 Why Study Non-Ideal Characteristics?
Understanding OpAmp imperfections helps engineers:
 Design accurate and stable circuits.
 Minimize errors due to input offsets and bias currents.
 Optimize performance for speed and frequency response.
 Reduce noise and unwanted interferences.