SETS THEORY

SPECIAL SETS

Nimde Hyer n
3 3
 Introduction to Number System
The number system is a way to classify and organise
numbers based on their properties and uses.
In mathematics, numbers are categorised into
different sets: natural numbers, whole numbers,
integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and
complex numbers. Each set has a unique
characteristics and relationships with other sets.

2 Nimde Hyer n
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 Types of Numbers
2.1 Natural Numbers (ℕ)
Definition: Natural numbers are the set of positive counting numbers
starting from 1.
Example: 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Properties: They do not include zero or negative numbers.
They are used for counting and ordering.
2.2 Whole Numbers(W)
Definition: Whole numbers include all natural numbers along with zero.
Example: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ..
Properties: No fractional or decimal parts.
They start from 0.

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 Types of Numbers
2.3 Integers (ℤ)
Definition: Integers include all whole numbers and their negative
counterparts.
Example: ..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Properties: Include positive, negative, and zero.
No fractional or decimal parts.
2.4 Rational Numbers (ℚ)
Definition: Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as the
ratio of two integers , where.
Example:2/3,-3.4,3/4,9.454545
Properties: Include integers since any integer can be written as .
Decimal expansions are either terminating or repeating.
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 Types of Numbers
• 2.6 Real Numbers(R)
• Definition: Real numbers include all rational and
• irrational numbers. The set of natural numbers,
• whole numbers, and integers all fall under the set of real
numbers.
• Examples: etc.
• Properties: They include commutative, associative
• and distributive properties of numbers(You can verify that
• for addition, multiplication,s ubtraction and division of
numbers.
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 Types of Numbers
• 2.7 Complex Numbers (c )
Definition: Complex Numbers are numbers of the form
where a is the real part and b is the imaginary
• Part.
• Example:
• Properties: They include all real and imaginary
numbers.

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 Relationship Between
Numbers Sets
• To understand the hierarchy and relationships between these
sets, consider the following inclusions:
• Natural Numbers (ℕ): Subset of whole numbers.
• Whole Numbers(W): Subset of integers
• Integers (ℤ): Subset of rational numbers.
• Rational Numbers (ℚ): Subset of real numbers.
• Irrational Numbers: Not a subset of rational numbers.
Together with rational numbers, they form the real numbers.
• Real Numbers (ℝ): Include all rational and irrational numbers.
Subset of complex numbers.
• Complex Numbers (ℂ): Superset of all other number sets.
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 Visual Presentation of
Numbers and their Subsets

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 Theory of Indices
•

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 Laws of Indices
• The Theory of Indices is governed by several laws
simplifying expressions involving powers.
• 1.Multiplication Law

• Example:
• Division Law:
• Example:
• To raise a power to a power, multiply the indices.
• (
• Example:
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 Laws of Indicies
• The power of a product is the product of the powers.

• Example:
• A power of a quotient is the quotient of the powers.

• Example:
• Zero exponent of a number or letter.

• Example:
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 Laws of Indicies
• Negative exponent of a number

• Example:

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 EXAMPLES
• Example 1:Evaluate the following and give answers in
its simplest form.
• 1)
• (2) (
• (3) (
• (4)
• (5) (

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 Indicial Equations
Simple Equations
Examples: Simplify the following
(1)

(2) =112

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 Indicial Equation Leading to
Simultaneous Equations
• Examples
• Solve the simultaneous equations
• (1) and =
• (2) =8 and
• (3) and
• (4) 243 and
• (5) and

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 Indicial equations leading to
Quadratic Equations.
• Examples :Solve the following equations.
• (1)

• (2) )

• (3)

• (4)

• (5)
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 Exponential Graphs
• We can use the calculator to find approximate values of
for various rational values of
• We place these in a table and we can then plot the
ordered pairs ()to produce a graph of
• Example:Produce a table of the function from . (Draw it
yourself)
• Properties: we noted the following features of the graph.
• The graph is increasing
• The values move quite rapidly as we moves along the
axis
• On the lefthand side the graph approaches but never
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reaches the axis.
 Exponential Graphs
• Exercise:Draw the graphs of and from -.
• We can also demonstrate the graphs of and
• on the same graph to achieve a unique
• solution to the exponential equation.(Try it on a
graph)
• Solving gives the following
•
•
•
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 Exponential Growth
• The exponential function is used to model growth
• popularly in population growth and money growth
• through compound interest.
• Suppose the culture initially contains 1000 bacteria
and doubles after each hour.
• One hour there are
• Two hours there are bacteria
• Three hours there are bacteria and so on.

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 Exponential Growth
• Following the pattern if there are bacteria after a
numbers of hours.
•.
• This is an illustration of Exponential Growth. This can
• also used to model radioactive decay.
• Exercise:For the rule
• Copy and complete the table

• Plot a graph of y against t

• Find to two decimal places when
 Logarithms
• The logarithmic function with base b is defined as
such
• that ⁡is equivalent to , where x and
• b are both positive, real numbers and such that b
does
• not equal to 1. In the logarithmic function of
• ⁡y is the logarithm, b is the base and x is the
argument.
• EXAMPLE
• Find
• SOLUTION
• One approach is to write, = x and so 21 (Index form)

• ,
 Logarithms
• Examples: Evaluate the following.
• 1.

• 2.

• 3.)

• 4.

• 5.
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 Laws of Logarithms
• Product Rule:

• E.g.

• Quotient Rule:

• E.g.

• Power Rule:

• E. g.
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 Properties of Indices
• 1. Example: ,=1

• 2. Example:

• 3..(Change of base)

• Example:

• 4.

• Example:
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 Simple Equations involving Logs
• Examples
• .solve these simple questions
• 1.

• 2.

• 3.

• 4.

• 5.
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 Quadratic Equations involving
Logs
• Examples
• Solve the following equations
• 1.

• 2.

• 3. 2

• 4.

• 5.
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 Logarithm Involving Simultaneous
Equations
• Examples
• 1.Solve for and the simultaneous equations.

2.Solve the simultaneous eqautions

3.Solve the simultaneous equations.

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 Surdic Equations
• Surds are irrational numbers or non- perfect squares
• expressed as square roots.For example and
• non-perfect squares and therefore their square roots
• ,and are irrational numbers with non-terminating
• decimals.
• Note the following
• 1.The square roots of prime numbers such as
• ,etc. are irrational numbers
• Decimals numbers which neither terminate nor recur are
• irrational numbers.Example is the value of
• which has no repeating pattern.
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 Surdic Equations
• Solve the following Equations
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.
• 6.
• 7.

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 Surdic Equations
• Solve the following equations.

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 Polynomials
• A Polynomial function is such as linear,
quadratic ,cubic and so on, involving only non-
negative integer power of .
• A Polynomial of degree is a function of the form

• The are real numbers (sometimes called the

coefficients of the polynomials)
• Examples of general term of polynomials are as
follows.
• is a polynomial of degree which a linear
function.Example: 31
 Polynomials
• is a polynomial of degree 2
• which is a quadratic function. Example:

• is a polynomial of

• degree 3 which is a cubic function and so on.

• Example:

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 Division of polynomial
• A polynomial can be divided by another
• polynomial provided the degree of is
• greater or equal to that of
• We perform the division by applying the long division
method.
• where is the dividend ,
• is the divisor,Q is the quotient and is the
• remainder.

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 Division of polynomial
• Examples:Perform the following divisions
• 1. by
• 2. by
• 3. by
• 4. by
• 5. by
• 6 by
• 7 by

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 The Remainder Theorem
• In the previous slide, we have established that
• Dividend=(Quotient)(Divisor)+(Remainder)……..(xx)
• If a polynomial is divided by the polynomial
• we obtain a quotient polynomial and the
• remainder .Then the equation in the form of
• equation(xx) becomes
• If we divide a polynomial by ,where a is
• a constant,then the remainder is a constant.

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 The Remainder Theorem
• We can therefore the equation(xxx) as
• where r is a constant.
• If then
• Definition of the remainder theorem: if a polynomial
• is divided by where a is a
• constant,then
• the remainder is the value of
• Note that when the polynomial is divided by
• the remainder is
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 The Remainder Theorem
• Examples : 1.Find the remainder when is divided by

• 2.When the polynomial is

• divided by the remainder is ,and when it is
• divided by the remainder is .Find the values of
• and

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 The Factor Theorem
• If a polynomial is divided by and
• then it follows that the remainder is zero.If the
• remainder is zero ,then the divisor is a factor
• of the dividend.
• On the other hand,if is a factor of the
• polynomial then we have the eqaution written
• in the form of eqaution(xx) as
• It follows that if
• we have
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 The Factor Theorem
• then is a factor of
• the polynomial function
• That is , is a factor of
• In a similar way, if is a factor of
• Examples: Show whether is a factor of
• .
• Determine whether or not is a factor of

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 The Factor Theorem
• Further Examples
• 1.Show whether or not is factor of
• 2.Factorize the function
• 3.Find the factors of the function.
• 4. and are factors of . Find and and the remaining
factor.
• 5.If and are factors of
• find the values of the constant and

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 Solving Inequalities
• Introduction: The expression 5x − 4 > 2x + 3 looks like an
• equation but with the equals sign replaced by an
• arrowhead. It is an example of an inequality.
• This denotes that the part on the left, 5x − 4, is greater
• than the part on the right, 2x + 3. We
• will be interested in finding the values of x for which the
• inequality is true.
• We use four symbols to denote inequalities:> is greater than
• ≥ is greater than or equal to
• < is less than
• ≤ is less than or equal to
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 Solving Inequalities
• Solving some simple inequalities
• Suppose we want to solve the inequality x + 3 > 2.
• We can solve this by subtracting 3 from both sides:
• x+3>2
• x > −1
• So the solution is x > −1. This means that any value of
• x greater than −1 satisfies x + 3 > 2.
• Inequalities can be represented on a number
• line.(Draw it yourself)
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 Solving Inequalities
• Solve the following simple inequalities.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• Draw number lines to represent the following
• Inequalities.

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 Solving Inequalities
• Inequalities used with a modulus symbol
• Inequalities often appear in conjunction with the modulus, or
• absolute value symbol | |, for
• example, in a statement such as
• |x| < 2
• Recall that the modulus of a number is simply its magnitude, or
• absolute value, regardless of its
• sign. So
• |2| = 2 and | − 2| = 2
• Returning to |x| < 2, if the absolute value of x is less than 2, then
• this means that x must lie
• between 2 and −2. We can write this as −2 < x < 2.

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 Solving Inequalities
• Examples:Solve the following.
• 1. 2.
•
• 3. 4.

• 7. 8.

• 9. 10.
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 Solving Quadratic Inequalities
• . Quadratic inequalities
• Quadratic inequalities need handling with care.
• Example
• Suppose we wish to solve x
• 2 − 3x + 2 > 0.
• The quadratic expression on the left will factorise to give (x
• − 2)(x − 1) > 0. If this was a
• quadratic equation we would simply state x − 2 = 0 and x − 1 = 0
• and hence x = 2 and x = 1.
• Unfortunately with inequalities the situation is more
• complicated and we have a bit more work to do.
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 Solving quadratic inequalities
• Whether (x − 2)(x − 1) is greater than zero or not
• depends upon the signs of the two factors
• (x − 2) and (x − 1). We investigate the possibilities
• using a grid as shown in Figure in next slide.
• On the top line of the grid we have indicated the places
where (x − 2)(x − 1) is equal to zero,
• that is when x is 1 or 2.
• We write the two factors (x − 1) and (x − 2) in the first
• column on the left. We write their
• product at the bottom left.
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Solving Quadratic Inequalities

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Solving Quadratic Inequalities
• The second column corresponds to where x is less than 1. When x < 1 both x −
1 and x − 2
• will be negative and so we have inserted − signs to show this. The product (x −
1)(x − 2) will
• therefore be positive, and hence the + sign.
• The third column corresponds to where x is greater than 1 but less than 2. In
this interval x − 1
• is positive, but x − 2 is negative, and hence the corresponding signs. The
product will then be
• negative.
• The fourth column shows what happens when x is greater than 2. Both
factors are positive.
• Hence their product is positive too.
• We are looking for where (x − 2)(x − 1) > 0 and our grid shows us that this is
true when x < 1
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• and when x > 2. The solution of the inequality is therefore x < 1 or x > 2.
 Solving quadratic Inequalities
• Examples: Solve the following quadratic inequalities
• by using a grid - confirm your answers by sketching
• the appropriate graph.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.

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Domain of a Rational Function
• Rational Expressions are fractions with polynomials in both
• the numerator and denominator.
• If the rational expression is a function, it is a Rational Function.
• Finding the Domain of a Rational Function
• The domain (e.g., x‐values) of a rational function is the set
• of all values that result in valid range
• values (e.g., y‐values). Generally, there are two situations
• where a value is not included in the
• domain of a rational function:
•  Any x that generates a zero in the denominator.
•  Any x that generates a square root of a negative
51 number.
Domain of a Rational Number
• Examples:Find the domain of the following rational
functions.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.
• 6.

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 Zeros of the Rational functions
• Zeros
• Let 𝑓 be the rational function 𝑓(𝑥) =
• where 𝑁 and 𝐷 have no common factors.
• The zeros of the rational function occur when 𝑁(𝑥) =
• 0 for all x in the domain of 𝑓.
• Steps to solve is to equate the numerator to zero and
• solve it ,the value of obtained is the zeros of the
• rational functions.

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 Zeros of a Rational Functions
• Examples:Find the zeros of the following rational
functions.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.

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 Partial Fractions
• An algebraic fraction such as
• can often be broken down into simpler parts called
• partial fractions. Specifically as
• .
• Expressing the fraction as sum of the partial fractions
• will be expressed as
• The next thing is to multiply both sides by the
• common denominator

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 Partial Fractions
• .Now this is called an
• identity.
• Solving with Cover Method ,if
•

• If

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 Partial Fractions
• Type 1:Partial Fractions with Denominators of simple
factors.
• Examples: Express the following as partial fractions.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.

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 Partial Fractions
• Fractions where the denominator has a repeated factor
• Consider the following example in which the
• denominator has a repeated factor
• Example:
• Suppose we want to express
• as the sum of its partial fractions.
• There are actually three possibilities for a denominators
• and also the possibility of

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