CS8081

INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF IOT

Prepared By,
L.Josephine Usha
AP/IT
SXCCE
Syllabus Outline
• Fundamentals Of IoT
• IoT Protocols
• Design And Development
• Data Analytics And Supporting Services
• Case Studies/Industrial Applications

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UNIT I - Outline
• Evolution of Internet of Things
• Enabling Technologies
• IoT Architectures: oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and
Alternative IoT models
• Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack
• Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT
• Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem – Sensors, Actuators,
Smart Objects and Connecting Smart Objects

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 Topic:1
Evolution of IoT

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Introduction
• Internet of things (IoT) is more than device to device
communication.
• It is a collection of many services, objects, humans and devices
that are interconnected that can communicate as well share
data and information in order to attain a common goal in

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different areas and applications.
• The main aim of Internet of Things is to connect to frequently
used objects which have the ability of sensing and having access
to the Internet, with or without the involvement of humans.
• Internet of Things (IoT) is a computing concept which provides

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interconnection between the uniquely identifiable devices.
• Three Major Elements:
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Object + Intelligence + Internet
Evolution of IoT
• Internet of Things is one of the trending technology of today's
era but we never thought from where it come and how it
evolved. So be ready to understand the whole evolution of IoT
from the beginning.
• Pre-Internet era - when their is no internet or and their is only

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HUMAN to HUMAN Communication it may be via "Fixed
Telephonic Line or SMS" at this time their is only network.
• Internet of CONTENT era - with the evolution of World Wide
Web (WWW) in this time we started using Email and minor
messaging Service.

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• Internet of SERVICES era - with the evolution of WEB 2.0 the
major game changer of modern internet. In this era we started
using internet more frequently for communication and other 6
purpose. Service like E-Commerce and E-productivity was born.
Evolution of IoT
• Now we are living in Era of Internet of PEOPLE where humans
are connected with each other in various ways and in real time
not only via phone and SMS. In this time Services like
Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Skype, Youtube etc was born. But
till now Human are communicating with humans.

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• Evolution is a continuous process and can't be stopped. Till
now we have developed various technologies and machines.
• Now its time for MACHINE to MACHINE communication again
a result of continuous Evolution and this is how "Internet of

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Things " was born.

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 Evolution of IoT

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 Current Status &
Future Prospect of IoT

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 Topic 2
IoT Enabling Technologies

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 IoT Enabling Technologies

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Wireless Sensor Networks
• Distributed Devices with sensors used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions.
• It is a network formed by large no. of sensor nodes to detect
light, heat , pressure etc. i.e. used to monitor environmental
and physical conditions.

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• A WSN consists of a number of end-nodes and routers and a
coordinator.
• End node can have several sensors attached to it.
• Each node can also acts as a routers – responsible for routing

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the data packets from end-nodes to the coordinator.
• Coordinator collects data from all nodes.
• Coordinator acts as gateway that connects WSN to the internet. 12
• End nodes(router) Coordinator(gateway)Internet.
Wireless Sensor Networks
• Examples of WSNs
• Indoor Air Quality Monitoring system – indoor air quality and
concentration of various gases.
• Weather Monitoring System – temperature, humidity
• Soil Moisture Monitoring System

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• Surveillance Systems - surveillance data
• Structural Health Monitoring Systems – health of structures
(bridges, buildings) be collecting vibration data
• Protocols used to enable WSNs are IEEE802.15.4, Zigbee is one
of the most popular wireless technology used by WSNs.

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• Zigbee specifications are based on IEEE802.15.4 which is used for
low powered devices. Data rate: up to 250KBps. Range: upto 100
meters. 13
Cloud Computing
• Cloud computing – Delivers applications and services over internet.
• It involves provisioning of computing, networking and storage resources
on demand and providing these resources on demand and providing
these resources as metered services to the users, in a “pay as you go”
model.
• Cloud computing services are offered to users in different forms.

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• Types of Cloud computing services
1. IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service),
2. PaaS(Platform as a Service and
3. SaaS(Software as a Services)
• Saas : Clients can access and use software at remote location using a

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web browser. Ex: Google documents
• Paas : Clients can install, build and modify or control applications. Ex:
App cloud, Google App Engine
• IaaS: Clients can use storage to install and manage operating systems 14
and any desired applications.( i.e Virtual machines + virtual storage) Ex:
Web Hosting.
 Cloud Computing

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 Cloud Computing

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L.Josephine Usha, AP/IT, SXCCE

 Big Data Analytics

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 Big Data Analytics

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Big Data Analytics
• Examples of Big data generated IoT systems are,
• Sensor data - Weather monitoring stations
• Health and fitness data – wearable fitness bands
• Data – location and tracking of vehicles
• Data – Inventory monitoring systems.

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Communication Protocols
• Backbone of IOT system – enables network connectivity and
coupling to applications.
• Allows devices to exchange data over networks.
• These protocols define data exchange formats, data encoding,
addressing Schemes, and Routing of packets from sources to

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destination.
• Other Functions include,
• Sequence control(ordering data packets)
• Flow control(controlling transfer rate)

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• Retransmission of lost packets

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Embedded Systems
• An embedded system is a computer system that has computer
hardware and software embedded to perform specific tasks.
• An embedded system can be either an independent system or a
part of a large system.
• Key Components

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• Microprocessor or micro controller
• Memory (RAM, ROM ect.)
• Storage ( Flash Memory)
• Networking units(Ethernet, Wifi adaptors )
• I/O units ( Keyboard, display ect)

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• Some Embedded systems have specialized processors such as,
DSP(Digital Signal Processor), Graphics Processor, App Specific
Processor 21
• Embedded systems run embedded OS, Ex: RTOS(Real Time OS)
(like symbian, Vxworks , Windows embedded compact ect.)
 Embedded Systems

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 Topic 3
IoT Architectures: OneM2M

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One M2M IoT Standardized
Architecture
• The One M2M architecture divides IoT functions into three
major domains:
• Application Layer
• Services Layer
• Network Layer

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• Promotes interoperability through IT-friendly APIs & support
wide range of IoT technologies.

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 Architecture
One M2M IoT Standardized

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One M2M IoT Standardized
Architecture
• Application Layer:
• The one M2M architecture gives major focus
on connectivity between devices and their
applications.

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• Includes application-layer protocols.
• Standardize API definitions for interaction with
BI systems.

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• Applications tend to be industry-specific and
have their own sets of data models – thus
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shown as vertical entities.
One M2M IoT Standardized
Architecture
• Services Layer:
• Shown as horizontal framework across the vertical
industry applications.
• The horizontal modules include,

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• Physical network that IoT applications run on
• Underlying management protocols
• Hardware
• Examples include backhaul communications via

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cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs and so on.,
• On the top is the common services layer – adds APIs
& middleware supporting third-party services & 27

applications.
One M2M IoT Standardized
Architecture
• Network Layer:
• Communication domain for the IoT devices and
endpoints.
• Includes devices themselves and the

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communications network that links them.
• Examples include wireless mesh technologies,
such as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-
multipoint systems, such as IEEE801.11ah.

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 Topic 3
IoT Architectures: IoTWF

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• In an IoT system, data is generated by multiple kinds of devices,
processed in different ways, transmitted to different locations,
and acted upon by applications.
• The proposed IoT reference model is comprised of seven levels.
Each level is defined with terminology that can be standardized

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to create a globally accepted frame of reference.
• The IoT Reference Model also allows the processing occurring at
each level to range from trivial to complex, depending on the
situation.
• The model describes how tasks at each level should be handled

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to maintain simplicity, allow high scalability, and ensure
supportability.
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• Finally, the model defines the functions required for an IoT
system to be complete.
 Reference Model
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 1: Physical Devices and Controllers
• The IoT Reference Model starts with Level 1: physical devices
and controllers that might control multiple devices.
• These are the “things” in the IoT, and they include a wide
range of endpoint devices that send and receive information.

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AP/IT, SXCCE
• Devices are diverse, and there are no rules about size,
location, form factor, or origin. Size of the “things” can range
from almost tiny sensors to huge machines in factory.
• Dozens or hundreds of equipment manufacturers will produce
IoT devices. To simplify compatibility and support
manufacturability, the IoT Reference Model generally
describes the level of processing needed from Level 1 devices. 32
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• The below diagram describes basic capabilities for a device.

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 2: Connectivity
• Communications and connectivity are concentrated in one
level—Level 2. The most important function of Level 2 is
reliable, timely information transmission. This includes
transmissions:

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• Between devices (Level 1) and the network
• Across networks (east-west)
• Between the network (Level 2) and low-level information
processing occurring at Level 3

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• Traditional data communication networks have multiple
functions, as evidenced by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 7-layer reference model.
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• However, a complete IoT system contains many levels in
addition to the communications network.
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 2: Connectivity

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 3: Edge (Fog) Computing
• Convert network data flows into information that is suitable
for storage and higher level processing at Level 4 (data
accumulation).
• Evaluate and Reformat data for processing at Higher Levels.

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• Filter data to reduce traffic higher level processing
• Assess data for Alerting, notification or other actions.
• A basic principle of the IoT Reference Model is that the most
intelligent system initiates information processing as early and

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as close to the edge of the network as possible. This is
sometimes referred to as fog computing.
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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 3: Edge (Fog) Computing

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• In connectivity level (Level 2) processing is performed in small units,
Level 3 processing is performed on a packet-by-packet basis.
• Level 3 processing can encompass many examples, such as:
• Evaluation: Evaluating data for criteria as to whether it should be
processed at a higher level

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• Formatting: Reformatting data for consistent higher-level
processing
• Expanding/decoding: Handling cryptic data with additional
context (such as the origin)
• Distillation/reduction: Reducing and/or summarizing data to

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minimize the impact of data and traffic on the network and
higher-level processing systems
• Assessment: Determining whether data represents a threshold or 38
alert; this could include redirecting data to additional destinations
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 4 : Data Accumulation
• Captures data and stores it so it is usable by applications when
necessary, Converts event-based data to query-based
processing.

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 4 : Data Abstraction Layer
• Reconciles multiple data formats and ensures consistent
semantics from various sources.
• Confirms that the data set is complete and consolidates data
into one place or multiple data stores using virtualization.

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 Reference Model
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 6: Applications Layer
• Interprets data using software applications. Applications may
monitor, control, and provide reports based on the analysis of
the data.

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IoT World Forum (IoTWF)
Reference Model
• Level 7: Collaboration and processes Layer
• Consumes and shares the application information.
• Collaborating on and communicating IoT information often
requires multiple steps, and it is what makes IoT useful.
• This layer can change business processes and delivers the

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benefits of IoT.

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 Reference Model
IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

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 Topic 4
A Simplified IoT Architecture

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Simplified IoT Architecture
• Framework is presented as 2 parallel stack:
• IoT Data Management and Compute Stack
• Core IoT Functional stack

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• Intention is to simplify the IoT architecture
into its most basic building blocks.

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Simplified IoT Architecture
• The Core IoT Functional Stack in three layers simplify the
IoT architecture into its most foundational building
blocks.

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 Simplified IoT Architecture

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Simplified IoT Architecture
• Data management is aligned with each of
the three layers of the Core IoT Functional
Stack.
• The three data management layers are the

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edge layer (data management within the
sensors themselves), the fog layer (data
management in the gateways and transit

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network), and the cloud layer (data
management in the cloud or central data 49

center).
Core IoT Functional Stack
• IoT model include core layers, including “things”,
a communications network, and applications.
• Framework separates core IoT & data
management in parallel and aligned stack.

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• Allows to examine functions of both, network &
applications, at each stage of complex IoT
system.
• Separation of Core IoT into three layers simplify

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the understanding of IoT architecture into its
most foundational building blocks. 50
Core IoT Functional Stack
• From an architectural standpoint, several
components have to work together for an IoT
network to be operational.
• “Things” Layer

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• Communications network layer
• Access network sub layer
• Gateways and backhaul network sub layer
• Network transport sub layer

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• IoT network management sub layer
• Application and analytics layer 51
Core IoT Functional Stack
• Layer 1- Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer
• Smart Objects – the Things in IoT, provides in-depth
information about smart objects.
• Variety of smart object types, shapes and needs –
derive variety of IoT protocols and architectures.

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• Battery-powered or power –connected
• Mobile or static
• Low or high reporting frequency
• Simple or rich data

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• Report range – distance at which gateway is located
• Object density per cell – number of smart objects over a
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given area.
Core IoT Functional Stack
• Layer 2- Communications Networks Layer
• Once determine the transmission capabilities of smart
objects, it is ready to communicate.
• Layer 3- Access Network Sub layer
• There is a direct relationship between the IoT network

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technology and the type of connectivity topology that this
technology allows.
• Each technology was designed with a certain number of use
cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how

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much data to transport at what interval and over what
distance).
• One key parameter determining the choice of access 53
technology is the range between the smart object and the
information collector.
Core IoT Functional Stack
• Layer 3- Access Network Sub layer
• Common groups are as follows:
• PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal
space around a person. A common wireless technology is Bluetooth.
• HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale,
common wireless technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low

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Energy (BLE).
• NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The
term NAN is often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is
collected.
• FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred
meters. FAN typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of

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house units. The FAN is often seen as “open space” (and therefore not
secured and not controlled).
• LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common in
networking, and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when 54
standard networking technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used.
Core IoT Functional Stack
• Layer 3- Access Network Sub layer
• Similar ranges also do not mean similar
topologies. Some technologies offer flexible
connectivity structure to extend communication

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possibilities:
• Point-to-point topologies
• Point-to-multipoint

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 Core IoT Functional Stack

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Core IoT Functional Stack
• Layer 4- Applications and Analytics Layer
• Once connected to a network, the smart
objects exchange information with other
systems.

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• As soon as the IoT network spans more than a
few sensors, the power of the Internet of
Things appears in the applications that make
use of the information exchanged with the

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smart objects.
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Core IoT Functional Stack
• Analytics Versus Control Applications
• Analytics application: This type of application
collects data from multiple smart objects, processes
the collected data, and displays information
resulting from the data that was processed. The

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display can be about any aspect of the IoT network,
from historical reports, statistics, or trends to
individual system states.
• Control application: This type of application controls

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the behavior of the smart object or the behavior of
an object related to the smart object. For example, a
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pressure sensor may be connected to a pump.
Core Data Management and
Compute Stack
• The “things” connected to the Internet are
continuing to grow exponentially.
• Cisco predicted that by 2020, there will be more
than 50 billion devices connected to some form

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of an IP network.
• If number of devices is beyond conventional
numbers, surely the data generated by these
devices must also be of serious concern.

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 Computing Model
Traditional IT Cloud

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Core Data Management and
Compute Stack
• Data-related problems need to be addressed:
• Bandwidth in last-mile IoT networks is very limited
• Latency can be very high – Large IoT networks
have the latency of hundreds to thousands of

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milliseconds
• Volume of data transmitted an be high
• Big data is getting bigger

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Fog Computing
• Solution to the various challenges is to distribute
data management throughout the IoT system, as
close to the edge of the IP network as possible.
• Best known example of edge services in IoT is fog

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computing.
• Any device with computing, storage, and
network connectivity can be a fog node.

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• Concept of fog – first developed by Flavio
Bonomi and Rodolfo Milito of Cisco Systems.
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Fog Computing
• In world of Iot, fog gets name from a relative
comparison to computing in cloud layer.
• Like clouds exists in sky, fog rests near ground.
• The intention of fog computing is to place

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resources as close to the ground – that is, the IoT
devices- as possible.
• Examples: Industrial controllers, switches,

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routers, embedded servers, and IoT gateways.

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Fog Computing
• Advantage of fog node allows intelligence
gathering (analytics) and control from the
closest possible point.
• This introduces new layer to the traditional IT

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computing model, one that is often referred to
as the “fog layer”.

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 Fog Computing

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Edge Computing
• Also called as “mist” computing
• If clouds exist in sky, and fog sits near ground,
then mist is what actually sits on the ground.
• Thus, concept of mist is to extend fog right into

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IoT endpoint device itself.
• Fog computing solutions are being adopted by
many industries.

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 Cloud
Hierarchy of Edge, Fog and

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Hierarchy of Edge, Fog and
Cloud
• It is important to stress that edge or fog computing in no
way replaces the cloud.
• Rather, they complement each other, and many use
cases actually require strong cooperation between

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layers.
• In the same way that lower courts do not replace the
supreme court of a country, edge and fog computing
layers simply act as a first line of defense for filtering,
analyzing, and otherwise managing data endpoints.

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• This saves the cloud from being queried by each and
every node for each event. 68
Hierarchy of Edge, Fog and
Cloud
• From an architectural standpoint, fog nodes closest to the
network edge receive the data from IoT devices.
• The fog IoT application then directs different types of data to
the optimal place for analysis:
• The most time-sensitive data is analyzed on the edge or fog node

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closest to the things generating the data.
• Data that can wait seconds or minutes for action is passed along
to an aggregation node for analysis and action.
• Data that is less time sensitive is sent to the cloud for historical
analysis, big data analytics, and long-term storage. For example,

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each of thousands or hundreds of thousands of fog nodes might
send periodic summaries of data to the cloud for historical
analysis and storage. 69
 Topic : 5
Functional blocks of an IoT

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Ecosystem

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Functional blocks of an IoT
ecosystem
• Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded
technology to sense and/or interact with their environment in
a meaningful way by being interconnected and enabling
communication among themselves or an external agent.
• Some of the fundamental building blocks of IoT networks are

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• Sensors
• Actuators
• Smart Objects

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Functional blocks of an IoT
ecosystem : Sensors
• A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses.
• A sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that
measurement reading into a digital representation.
• That digital representation is typically passed to another device for
transformation into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent

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devices or humans.
• Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data.
• They are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of rich and
diverse measurement data with far greater precision than human
senses.

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• Sensors provide superhuman sensory capabilities.
• Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical objects that are
easily connected to the Internet by wired or wireless networks, they 72
can interpret their environment and make intelligent decisions.
 Sensor Categories
• Sensors have been grouped into different categories
• Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an
energy output and typically require an external power supply (active) or whether they
simply receive energy and typically require no external power supply (passive).
• Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is
part of the environment it is measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).
• Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require
physical contact with what they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).

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• Absolute or relative: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on
an absolute scale (absolute) or based on a difference with a fixed or variable reference
value (relative).
• Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or
vertical where they are being used.

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• How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism
used to measure sensory input (for example, thermoelectric, electrochemical,
piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic).
• What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or 73
what physical variables they measure.
 Different types of sensors

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 Different types of sensors

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Functional blocks of an IoT
ecosystem : Actuators
• Actuators are natural complements to sensors.
• Figure demonstrates the symmetry and complementary
nature of these two types of devices.

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Functional blocks of an IoT
ecosystem : Actuators
• Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically
any measurable variable in the physical world.
• They convert their measurements (typically analog) into
electric signals or digital representations that can be

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consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a human).
• Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of
control signal (commonly an electric signal or digital
command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some
type of motion, force, and so on.

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Actuators Categories
• Actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on.
• Some common ways that they can be classified include the
following:
• Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of
motion they produce (for example, linear, rotary, one/two/three-

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axes).
• Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for
example, high power, low power, micro power)
• Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the
number of stable-state outputs.

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• Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific
industry or vertical where they are used.
• Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy 78
type.
 Actuators Types

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Functional blocks of an IoT
Ecosystem :Smart Objects
• Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT.
• They are what transform everyday objects into a network
of intelligent objects that are able to learn from and
interact with their environment in a meaningful way.

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• A smart object, is a device that has, at a minimum, the
following four defining characteristics
• Processing Unit
• Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s)

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• Communication Device
• Power Source
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Functional blocks of an IoT
Ecosystem :Smart Objects
• Processing Unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for
acquiring data, processing and analyzing sensing information received by
the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any actuators, and
controlling a variety of functions on the smart object, including the
communication and power systems.
• Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting

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with the physical world through sensors and actuators. A smart object
does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart
object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending
upon the application.
• Communication Device: The communication unit is responsible for

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connecting a smart object with other smart objects and the outside
world (via the network). Communication devices for smart objects can
be either wired or wireless. 81
• Power Source: Smart objects have components that need to be
powered. Interestingly, the most significant power consumption usually
comes from the communication unit of a smart object.
Functional blocks of an IoT
Ecosystem :Smart Objects
• Processing Unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for
acquiring data, processing and analyzing sensing information received by
the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any actuators, and
controlling a variety of functions on the smart object, including the
communication and power systems.
• Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting

Prepared By:L.Josephine Usha, AP/

with the physical world through sensors and actuators. A smart object
does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart
object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending
upon the application.
• Communication Device: The communication unit is responsible for

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connecting a smart object with other smart objects and the outside
world (via the network). Communication devices for smart objects can
be either wired or wireless. 82
• Power Source: Smart objects have components that need to be
powered. Interestingly, the most significant power consumption usually
comes from the communication unit of a smart object.
 Trends in Smart Objects
• Size is decreasing: Some smart objects are so small they are not even
visible to the naked eye. This reduced size makes smart objects easier to
embed in everyday objects.
• Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of
a smart object continually consume less power. Some battery-powered
sensors last 10 or more years without battery replacement.

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• Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more
powerful and smaller.
• Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that
wireless speeds are continually increasing, but they are also increasing in
range. IoT is driving the development of more and more specialized

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communication protocols covering a greater diversity of use cases and
environments.
• Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push 83
in the industry to develop open standards for IoT communication
protocols. In addition, there are more and more open source efforts to
advance IoT
 Connecting smart objects
• The characteristics and attributes considered when selecting and dealing
with connecting smart objects are
• 1)Range: It defines how far does the signal need to be propagated? That is,
what will be the area of coverage for a selected wireless technology?

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 Connecting smart objects
• Short Range:
• The classical wired example is a serial cable.
• Wireless short-range technologies are often considered as
an alternative to a serial cable, supporting tens of meters of
maximum distance between two devices.

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• Examples of short-range wireless technologies are IEEE
802.15.1 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.7 Visible Light
Communications (VLC).
• These short-range communication methods are found in

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only a minority of IoT installations.
85
 Connecting smart objects
• Medium Range:
• In the range of tens to hundreds of meters, many
specifications and implementations are available.
• The maximum distance is generally less than 1 mile between
two devices.

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• Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include
IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and 802.15.4g WPAN.
• Wired technologies such as IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE
1901.2

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• Narrowband Power Line Communications (PLC) may also be
classified as medium range, depending on their physical
86
media characteristics.
 Connecting smart objects
• Long Range:
• Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require
long-range technologies. Wireless examples are cellular (2G,
3G, 4G) and some applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi
and Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies.

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• LPWA communications have the ability to communicate
over a large area without consuming much power.
• These technologies are therefore ideal for battery-powered
IoT sensors.

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• Found mainly in industrial networks, IEEE 802.3 over optical
fiber and IEEE 1901 Broadband Power Line Communications
87
are classified as long range but are not really considered IoT
access technologies.
 Connecting smart objects
2 ) Frequency Bands:
• Radio spectrum is regulated by countries and/or
organizations, such as the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) and the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC).

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• These groups define the regulations and transmission
requirements for various frequency bands.
• For example, portions of the spectrum are allocated to types
of telecommunications such as radio, television, military,

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and so on.
• Focusing on IoT access technologies, the frequency bands
88
leveraged by wireless communications are split between
licensed and unlicensed bands.
 Connecting smart objects
• Frequency Bands:
• Licensed spectrum is generally applicable to IoT long-range
access technologies and allocated to communications
infrastructures deployed by services providers, public
services (for example, first responders, military),

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broadcasters, and utilities.
• The ITU has also defined unlicensed spectrum for the
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) portions of the radio
bands.

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• These frequencies are used in many communications
technologies for short-range devices (SRDs).
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 Connecting smart objects
• Frequency Bands:
• Unlicensed means that no guarantees or protections are
offered in the ISM bands for device communications.
• For IoT access, these are the most well-known ISM bands:
• 2.4 GHz band as used by IEEE 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi

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• IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
• IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN
• Unlicensed spectrum is usually simpler to deploy than

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licensed because it does not require a service provider.

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 Connecting smart objects
• Frequency Bands:
• Some communications within the ISM bands operate in the
sub-GHz range.
• Sub-GHz bands are used by protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4,
802.15.4g, and 802.11ah, and LPWA technologies such as

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LoRa and Sigfox.
• The most well-known ranges are centered on 169 MHz, 433
MHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz.
• The 868 MHz band is applicable to IoT access technologies

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such as IEEE 802.15.4 and 802.15.4g, 802.11ah, and
LoRaWAN.
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 Connecting smart objects
3 ) Power Consumption:
• Battery-powered nodes bring much more flexibility to IoT
devices.
• These nodes are often classified by the required lifetimes of
their batteries.

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• A powered node has a direct connection to a power source,
and communications are usually not limited by power
consumption criteria.
• IoT wireless access technologies must address the needs of

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low power consumption and connectivity for battery-
powered nodes.
92
• This has led to the evolution of a new wireless environment
known as Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA).
 Connecting smart objects
4 ) Topology
• Three main topology schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and
peer-to-peer.
• For long-range and short-range technologies, a star topology is
prevalent, as seen with cellular, LPWA, and Bluetooth

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networks.
• Star topologies utilize a single central base station or controller
to allow communications with endpoints.
• For medium-range technologies, a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh

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topology is common.
• Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate with
any other device as long as they are in range of each other. 93
• Peer-to-peer topologies enable more complex formations,
such as a mesh networking topology.
 Topology

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