Chapter 4

Oscillators
Oscillator operation
 The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain
(Af) greater than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an
oscillator circuit.

 An oscillator circuit then provides a varying output signal. If the output signal varies
sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal oscillator.

 If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later drops quickly to another
voltage level, the circuit is generally referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
To understand how a feedback circuit performs as an oscillator, consider the feedback
circuit of Fig. 1. When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.
Consider that we have a fictitious voltage at the amplifier input Vi.

 This results in an output voltage Vo = AVi after the amplifier stage and in a voltage Vf =
β(AVi) after the feedback stage. Thus, we have a feedback voltage Vf = βAVi, where βA is
referred to as the loop gain.

If the circuits of the base amplifier and feedback network provide βA of a correct
magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi. Then, when the switch is closed and
the fictitious voltage Vi is removed, the circuit will continue operating since the feedback
voltage is sufficient to drive the amplifier and feedback circuits, resulting in a proper
input voltage to sustain the loop operation.
 The output waveform will still exist after the switch is closed if the condition
βA =1
 is met. This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.

Fig.1. Feedback circuit used as an oscillator

In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillator going. Only the
condition βA =1 must be satisfied for self-sustained oscillations to result. In
practice, βA is made greater than 1 and the system is started oscillating by
amplifying noise voltage, which is always present.

Saturation factors in the practical circuit provide an “average” value of βA of 1.

The resulting waveforms are never exactly sinusoidal.

However, the closer the value βA is to exactly 1, the more nearly sinusoidal is the
waveform. Figure 2 shows how the noise signal results in a buildup of a steady-
state oscillation condition.
Fig.2. Buildup of steady-state oscillations
Another way of seeing how the feedback circuit provides operation as an
oscillator is obtained by noting the denominator in the basic feedback equation
(Af = A/(1 + βA).

When βA =1 or magnitude 1 at a phase angle of 180°, the denominator becomes

0 and the gain with feedback Af becomes infinite. Thus, an infinitesimal signal
(noise voltage) can provide a measurable output voltage, and the circuit acts as
an oscillator even without an input signal.
oscillator circuits
Phase shift oscillator
An idealized version of this circuit is shown in Fig. 3. Recall that the requirements
for oscillation are that the loop gain βA is greater than unity and that the phase
shift around the feedback network is 180° (providing positive feedback).

In the present idealization, we are considering the feedback network to be driven
by a perfect source (zero source impedance) and the output of the feedback
network to be connected into a perfect load (infinite load impedance).

The idealized case will allow development of the theory behind the operation of
the phase-shift oscillator.
Fig.3. Idealized phase-shift oscillator.
  Using classical network analysis, we find that

 and the phase shift is 180°. For the loop gain βA to be greater than unity,
the gain of the amplifier stage must be greater than 1/β or 29:

A >29
FET phase-shift Oscillator
A practical version of a phase-shift oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 4. The circuit
is drawn to show clearly the amplifier and feedback network. The amplifier stage
is self biased with a capacitor bypassed source resistor RS and a drain bias
resistor RD. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd.

 From FET amplifier theory, the amplifier gain magnitude is calculated from

where RL in this case is the parallel resistance of RD and rd,

Fig.4. Practical FET phase-shift oscillator circuits
Eg.1. It is desired to design a phase-shift oscillator (as in Fig.4) using a FET having
gm = 5000 mS, rd = 40 k ohm, and a feedback circuit value of R = 10 k ohm. Select
the value of C for oscillator operation at 1 kHz and RD for A >29 to ensure
oscillator action.

Solution: Since f = 1/2πRC, we can solve for C:

Then by using; we solve for RD = 10 k.

Wien bridge Oscillator

 practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator
frequency set by the R and C components. Figure 4 shows a basic version of a
Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
 Note the basic bridge connection. Resistors R1 and R2 and capacitors C1 and C2
form the frequency-adjustment elements, and resistors R3 and R4 form part of
the feedback path.
Fig. 5.Wien bridge oscillator circuit using an op-amp amplifier.
The op-amp output is connected as the bridge input at points a and c. The bridge
circuit output at points b and d is the input to the op-amp. Neglecting loading
effects of the op-amp input and output impedances, the analysis of the bridge
circuit results in:

If, in particular, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the resulting oscillator

frequency is
Thus a ratio of R3 to R4 greater than 2 will provide sufficient loop gain for the
circuit to oscillate at the frequency calculated using the above equation.

Eg.2. Calculate the resonant frequency of the Wien bridge oscillator of Fig.6.
Fig.6. Wien bridge oscillator circuit for Example 2.
Solution:

Tuned Oscillator Circuit

Tuned-input, tuned-Output Oscillator Circuits
 A variety of circuits can be built using that shown in Fig. 7 by providing
tuning in both the input and output sections of the circuit. Analysis of the
circuit of Fig. 25 reveals that the following types of oscillators are obtained
when the reactance elements are as designated:
Fig.7. Basic configuration of resonant circuit oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Fet Colpitts Oscillator
A practical version of an FET Colpitts oscillator is shown in Fig. 8. The circuit is
basically the same form as shown in Fig. 7 with the addition of the components
needed for dc bias of the FET amplifier. The oscillator frequency can be found to
be
………………eq(1)

Where,
Fig.8. FET Colpitts oscillator.
Transistor Colpitts Oscillator

A transistor Colpitts oscillator circuit can be made as shown in Fig. 9. The

oscillator frequency is given by eq (1).

Fig.9. Transistor Colpitts oscillator

IC Colpitts Oscillator
• An op-amp Colpitts oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 10. Again, the op-amp provides
the basic amplification needed.

Fig.10. Op-amp Colpitts oscillator.

The oscillator frequency is set by an LC feedback network of a Colpitts
configuration. The oscillator frequency is given by eq(1).
Hartley Oscillator
If the elements in the basic resonant circuit of Fig. 7 are X1 and X2 (inductors) and
X3 (capacitor), the circuit is a Hartley oscillator.
FET Hartley Oscillator
A FET Hartley oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 11. The circuit is drawn so that the
feedback network conforms to the form shown in the basic resonant circuit (Fig.
7). Note, however, that inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling M, which
must be taken into account in determining the equivalent inductance for the
resonant tank circuit.
Fig.11. FET Hartley oscillator.
The circuit frequency of oscillation is then given approximately by

………………eq(2)

Crystal Oscillator
 A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric
crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater
stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to
operate.
Crystal oscillators are used whenever great stability is required, such as in
communication transmitters and receivers.

Characteristics of a quartz Crystal

 A quartz crystal (one of a number of crystal types) exhibits the property that
when mechanical stress is applied across one set of its faces, a difference of
potential develops across the opposite faces.
 This property of a crystal is called the piezoelectric effect. Similarly, a voltage
applied across one set of faces of the crystal causes mechanical distortion in
the crystal shape.
The crystal as represented by the equivalent electrical circuit of Fig.12 can
have two resonant frequencies. One resonant condition occurs when the
reactance's of the series RLC leg are equal (and opposite) (series-resonant) .

For this condition, the series-resonant impedance is very low (equal to R).
The other resonant condition occurs at a higher frequency when the
reactance of the series-resonant leg equals the reactance of capacitor CM.
This is a parallel resonance or antiresonance condition of the crystal. At this
frequency, the crystal offers a very high impedance to the external circuit. The
impedance versus frequency of the crystal is shown in Fig. 13.
Fig.12. Electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal. Fig.13. Crystal impedance versus frequency.
Fig.14. Crystal-controlled oscillator using a crystal (XTAL) in a series-feedback path: (a) BJT circuit; (b) FET circuit.
Series-resonant Circuits
To excite a crystal for operation in the series-resonant mode, it may be connected as a
series element in a feedback path. At the series-resonant frequency of the crystal, its
impedance is smallest and the amount of (positive) feedback is largest. Atypical transistor
circuit is shown in Fig. 14.

Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias circuit.

 Capacitor CE provides AC bypass of the emitter resistor,

And the RFC coil provides for dc bias while decoupling any AC signal on the power lines
from affecting the output signal. The voltage feedback from collector to base is a
maximum when the crystal impedance is minimum (in series-resonant mode). The
coupling capacitor CC has negligible impedance at the circuit operating frequency but
Parallel-resonant Circuits
Since the parallel-resonant impedance of a crystal is a maximum value, it is
connected in shunt.

At the parallel-resonant operating frequency, a crystal appears as an inductive

reactance of largest value. Figure 15 shows a crystal connected as the inductor
element in a modified Colpitts circuit.

Maximum voltage is developed across the crystal at its parallel-resonant

frequency. The voltage is coupled to the emitter by a capacitor voltage divider—
capacitors C1 and C2.
Fig.15. Crystal-controlled oscillator operating in parallel-resonant mode.
Crystal Oscillator
An op-amp can be used in a crystal oscillator as shown in Fig. 16. The crystal is
connected in the series-resonant path and operates at the crystal series-
resonant frequency.

The present circuit has a high gain, so that an output square-wave signal results
as shown in the figure. A pair of Zener diodes is shown at the output to provide
output amplitude at exactly the Zener voltage (VZ).
Fig.16. Crystal oscillator using an op-amp.
Unijunction Oscillator
A particular device, the unijunction transistor, can be used in a single-stage
oscillator circuit to provide a pulse signal suitable for digital-circuit applications.

The unijunction transistor can be used in what is called a relaxation oscillator as

shown by the basic circuit of Fig. 17.

Resistor RT and capacitor CT are the timing components that set the circuit
oscillating rate. The oscillating frequency may be calculated using eq(3), which
includes the unijunction transistor intrinsic stand-off ratio ⴄ as a factor (in
addition to RT and CT) in the oscillator operating frequency:
 ………………eq(3)

Typically, a unijunction transistor has a stand-off ratio from 0.4 to 0.6.

Using a value of ⴄ = 0.5, we get:
Fig.17. Basic unijunction oscillator circuit. Fig.18. Unijunction oscillator waveforms.
Capacitor CT is charged through resistor RT toward supply voltage VBB. As long as the
capacitor voltage VE is below a stand-off voltage (VP) set by the voltage across B1 to
B2 and the transistor stand-off ratio ⴄ, the unijunction emitter lead appears as an
open circuit.

When the emitter voltage across capacitor CT exceeds this value (VP), the unijunction
circuit fires, discharging the capacitor, after which a new charge cycle begins. When
the unijunction fires, a voltage rise is developed across R1 and a voltage drop is
developed across R2 as shown in Fig. 18. The signal at the emitter is a sawtooth
voltage waveform that at base 1 is a positive-going pulse and at base 2 is a negative-
going pulse.
The End