Scribd
Upload
5 views

02-Basic Structures

Chapter 2 covers basic structures in mathematics, focusing on sets, functions, sequences, and summations. It introduces key concepts such as set operations, functions as mappings, and the properties of sequences and summations. Additionally, it discusses cardinality and the distinction between countable and uncountable sets.

Uploaded by

Đào Thảo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
5 views

02-Basic Structures

Chapter 2 covers basic structures in mathematics, focusing on sets, functions, sequences, and summations. It introduces key concepts such as set operations, functions as mappings, and the properties of sequences and summations. Additionally, it discusses cardinality and the distinction between countable and uncountable sets.

Uploaded by

Đào Thảo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 57

Chapter 2

Basic Structures
Sets, Functions
Sequences, and Sums
Objectives
 Sets
 Setoperations
 Functions
 Sequences
 Summations
2.1- Sets
 An unordered collection of objects
 The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members. A set is said to contain its elements.
 Some important sets in discrete mathematics
N = { 0,1,2,3,4,… }
Z = { … , -2,-1,0,1,2,…} Z+ = {0,1,2,…}
R: the set of real numbers G. Cantor

 p 
 r  p  , 0 q  
 q 
V  a, u , o, i, e
SETS
Definitions:
 Finite set: Set has n elements, n is a nonnegative integer
 A set is an infinite set if it is not finite
 Cardinality of a set |S|: Number of elements of S
  : empty set (null set), the set with no element
 Two sets are equal  they have the same elements
A = B if and only if x (xA  x B)
 A B: the set A is a subset of the set B
A  B if and only if x (xA  x B)
 A  B: A is a proper subset of B
A  B if and only if (A  B) ^ (A ≠ B) Venn diagram shows that A
is a subset of B
2.2- Set Operations
The Union of sets A and B, denoted by A  B
A  B  x x  A  x  B
The difference of A and B, denoted by A-B
A-B=  x x  A  x  B
The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by A  B
A  B=A  B-A  B=  x ( x  A  x  B )  ( x  A  B)
Inter sec tion : A  B  x x  A  x  B
U is the universal set, complement of A is denoted by A
A=U-A=  x x  A
Set Identities
Identity – See proofs : pages 125, 126 Name

A  = A A U = A Identity laws - Luật đồng nhất

A U= U A  =  Domination laws - Luật thống trị


A A=A AA=A Idempotent laws – Luật bất biến
Complementation law – Luật bù đôi
A A
AB = B  A AB=B A Commutative laws – Luật giao hoán

A (B C)= (A B)  C A (B  C)= (A Associative laws – Luật kết hợp


B)  C
A (B  C) = (A B) (A  C) Distributive laws Luật phân phối
A  (B C) = (A  B) (A  C)

A B =A B A B = A  B De Morgan laws

A  (A B) = A A  (AB) = A Absorption – Luật hấp phụ

A A =U A A =  Complement laws – Luật bù


Power Sets

 Given a set S, power set P(S) of S is a set of


all subsets of the set S.
 If S= {1,2,3} then P(S) is

{Ø,
{1}, {2},{3},
{1,2}, {1,3},{2,3},
{1,2,3}}.
Cartesian Products
 The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element, a2 as its
second element, …, and an as its nth element.
 Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by AxB,
A B  a, b  a  A, b  B
For example
A=  a, b B= 1, 2, 3
A B  a,1, a, 2 , a,3 , b,1, b, 2 , b, 3
Cartesian Products…

 The Cartesian product of A1,A2,…,An , denoted


A1xA2x…xAn, is the set of ordered n-tuples (a 1,a2,
…,an),
 
A1 A2 ... An  a1 , a2 ,..., an  ai  Ai , i 1, n
For example
A=  a, b B= 1, 2,3 , C  0,1

 AxBxC= {(a,1,0),(a,1,1),(a,2,0),(a,2,1),(a,3,0),(a,3,1),
(b,1,0),(b,1,1),(b,2,0),(b,2,1),(b,3,0),(b,3,1) }
Computer Representation of Sets

• Use bit string U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}


• A= {1,3,5,7,9 }  A = “1010101010”
• B= { 1,8,9}  B = “1000000110”
Computer Representation of Sets
A = “1010101010”
B = “1000000110”

A  B 10 1010 1010  10 0000 0110=10 1010 1110


A  B 1,3,5, 7, 8,9
A  B=10 1010 1010  10 0000 0110 10 0000 0010
A  B 1,9
2.3- Functions (Mapping)
Ánh xạ (hàm)
 f: A → B function f from A to B (or function f maps A to B)
 A: domain of f
 B: codomain of f
Functions as sets of ordered pairs
Functions/Mappings/Transformations…

What are functions?


 f: →  : f(x) = x2 + 2
 f: →  : f(x) = 1/(x-1)2 + 5x
 f: →  : f(x) = (2x+5)/7
 f: →  : f(x) = (2x+5)2/(7-2x)
Some Important Functions

See Figure 10 – Page 143


Floor function
f:  → such that f(x)= x = largest integer
that less than or equal to x (số nguyên lớn nhất
chưa vượt qua x), x x
Ceiling function
f:  → such that f(x)= x = smallest integer
that greater than or equal to x ( số nguyên bé
nhất x chưa vượt qua), x x
One-to-One/ Injective functions
( đơn ánh)
Function f is one-to-one (or
injective) if and only if
a  b → f(a)  f(b)
for all a and b in the domain of f.
 f :  → , f(x) = x2

f is not one-to-one
(we have f(-1) = f(1))
Onto Functions – Ánh xạ lên
( toàn ánh)
A function f from A to B is called onto, or
surjective, iff
for every element b in B there is an element
a in A with f(a)=b.
 f:  → , f(m) =m-1

f is onto because y, y=f(m)=m-1, where


m=y+1
One-to-one Correspodent / Bijection
Functions ( song ánh)
Function f is a one-to-one
corespondence or a bijection if it is both
one-to-one and onto.

f: {A,B,…,Z} →{65,66,…,90} is a bijection


Inverse Functions
Let f is a bijection from A to B. The inverse function,
denoted by f-1, of f is the function that assigns to an
element b belonging to B the unique element a in A such
that f(a)=b. Hence f-1(b)=a when f(a)=b.
Inverse Functions
f:→ such that f(x)=x+1
Is f invertible? And if it is, what is its inverse?
Step 1: Show that f is onto:
f(y-1)=y for all y
 f is onto
Step 2: Show that f is one-to-one:
f(a)=a+1= f(b)=b+1  a=b  f is one-to-one
 f is bijection  f is invertible

Step 3: Find inverse function by solving x in term of y


f(x)= y=x+1  x=y-1  f-1(y)=y-1.
Composition of Functions – Ánh xạ hợp
Let g:A → B, f: B → C
The composition of f and g, denoted by fg, is defined by:
(fg)(x)= f(g(x))

Example:
f:  →, f(x)=x+1
g:→, g(x)= x2
(fg)(x)= f(g(x))= f(x2) = x2+1
(gf)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x+1)= (x+1)2
2.4- Sequences

 Sequence : a1, a2, a3,…, an,…


– Ex: 1,3,5,8 : Finite sequence
– Ex: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,… : Infinite sequence
 A sequence is a function from a subset of
integers to a set S.
– an : image of the integer n
– ai : a term of the sequence
– {an= 1/n}: +→   1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, …
Sequences…
Geometric progression (cấp số nhân)
f(n) = arn  a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn
Arithmetic progression (cấp số cộng)
f(n) = a + nd  a, a+d, a+ 2d, … , a+nd
a: initial term,
r: common ratio, a real number
d: common difference, real number
Do your self
bn= (-1)n , n>=0 cn= 2(5)n , n>=0
tn= 7-3n, n>=0 an= -1 + 4n, n>=0
Some Useful Sequences
Hints for deducing a possible formula for
the terms of a sequence.
1. Are there runs of same value? 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4……
2. Are terms obtained from previous term by adding/ multiplying
by a particular amount?
1 5 9 13 17 … 2 6 18 54 ….
4. Are terms obtained by combining previous terms in a certain
way? 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 …
5. Are they cycles among terms
Ex:
{an} 1 7 25 79 241 727 ….
6 18 54 162 486  close to 3  {3n}
{3n} = 3 9 27 81 243 729 …
 {an} = {3n -2}
Summations
n
am  am 1  am 2  ...  an  a j  j m a j  mj n a j
n

j m

a : Sequence
j : Index of summation // 1 + 2 +3+4+…+n
m: Lower limit long sum1 ( int n) // n additions
{ long S=0;
n : Upper limit for (int i=1; i<=n; i++) S+= i;
return S;
}
// 1 addition, 1 multiplication, 1 division
long sum2 (int n)
{ return ((long)n) * (n+1)/2;
}

See examples 10, 11. Page 154


PROPERTIES
Summations….

Theorem 1- (Summation of geometric series)

See the proofs in page 155


Some Useful Summation Formulae

See example 15, page 157


Cardinality – Lực Lượng

 Cardinality = number of elements in a set.


 The sets A and B have the same cardinality if and only if
there is a one-to-one correspondence from A to B
 A set that is either finite or has the same cardinality as
the set of positive integers is called countable.
 A set that is not countable is called uncountable.
 When a infinite set S is countable , we denote the
cardinality of S is |S|= 0‫( א‬aleph null)
 For example, ||= 0‫ א‬because  is countable and
infinite but  is uncountable and infinite, and we say ||
=2 0‫א‬
Examples p.159, 160
sets countable uncountable cardinality
{a, b, …, z}, {x| x5 -3x2 – 11 = 0},   <
…

{0, 2, 4, …, }   0‫א‬

N, Z+, Z, Q, ZZ, …   0‫א‬


{x| 0 < x < 1}, R,…   20 ‫א‬
Let n be the number at of the sequence. Then

Hence,
Summary
 Sets
 Setoperations
 Functions
 Sequences
 Summations

You might also like