Chapter one:-Concept of Stress

1.1 Introduction
• The main objective of the study of mechanics of materials is to
provide the future engineer with the means of analyzing and
designing various machines and load bearing structures.
• Both the analysis and design of a given structure involve the
determination of stresses and deformations. This chapter is devoted
to the concept of stress.
• In this chapter you are going to study the concept of stress in a
member of a structure, you will consider successively the normal
stresses in a member under axial loading, the shearing stresses
caused by opposite transverse forces, and the bearing stresses
created by bolts and pins in the members.
• A two-force member under axial loading is considered again, it will
be observed that the stresses on an oblique plane include both
normal and shearing stresses and six components are required to
describe the state of stress at a point in a body under the most
general loading conditions
1-1
 1.2. Forces and stresses
Review of Statics
Force/Load is a physical quantity that denotes ability to push, pull, twist and accelerate a
body w/c is measured in Newton, N.
Typical loading types are:
a)Static or dead loads, i.e. non-fluctuating loads, generally caused by gravity effects.
b)Live loads, as produced by, for example, lorries crossing a bridge.
c)Impact or shock loads caused by sudden blows.
d)Fatigue, fluctuating or alternating loads, the magnitude and sign of the load changing
with time. • The structure is designed to
support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports
1-2
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are
indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C 0  Ax 0.6 m  30 kN 0.8 m 
Ax 40 kN
 Fx 0 Ax  C x
C x  Ax  40 kN
 Fy 0  Ay  C y  30 kN 0
Ay  C y 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

1-3
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B 0  Ay 0.8 m 
Ay 0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y 30 kN

• Results:
A 40 kN  C x 40 kN  C y 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod

1-4
Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 FB 0
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
FAB 40 kN FBC 50 kN

1-5
 Stresses in the members of a structure

Stress is internal resistance of the body b/c of applied

loads

• The SI metric units that used to measure the stress is Newton

(N) per square meters (N/m2) and this unit is called a Pascal
(Pa).
• In practice, multiples of this unit must be used, namely, the
kilopascal (kPa), the mega Pascal (MPa), and the giga Pascal
(GPa). We have
 Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30kN load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40kN (compression) &FBC = 50kN (tension)
Results obtained in the preceding section do not tell
us whether the given load can be safely supported
or not. This will be checked by analysis and design
of a structure by determination of stresses and
deformation
• At any section through member BC, the
internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC   159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2
• From the material properties for steel, the
allowable stress is
 all 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate
1-7
 Design
The engineer’s role is not limited to the analysis of existing structures and
machines subjected to given loading conditions. Of even greater importance to
the engineer is the design of new structures and machines, that is, the selection
of appropriate components to perform a given task.
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod
from aluminum all= 100 MPa) What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N 6 2
 all  A  500 10 m
A  all 100 106 Pa

d2
A 
4

d
4A


4 500 10  6 m 2  2.52 10 2 m 25.2 mm
 
• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is
adequate 1-8
1.3.Axial Loading: Normal Stress G3
• an axial force is a load directed along the axis of the member,
resulting in either tension or compression.
• The internal forces and the corresponding stresses were normal
to the section/plane.
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member
is normal to a section cut perpendicular to the member axis. e.g.
members of the bridge truss.
•To define the stress at a given point and force
intensity on that section as the normal stress we
can use:- F P
  lim  ave 
A 0 A A
• The normal stress at a particular point may not be
equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P  ave A dF   dA
A
• The detailed distribution of stress is statically
indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone. 1-9
Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only
possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.
• If a two-force member is eccentrically
loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an axial
force and a couple of moment M=Pd.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
1 - 10
1.4. Shearing Stress
• acts tangential to the surface of material element
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.

P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
1 - 11
be uniform.
Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A A 2A
1 - 12
1.5. Bearing Stress in Connections
When one object presses against another, it is referred to a
bearing stress ( They are in fact the compressive stresses ).
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.
• The resultant of the force
distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.
• Corresponding average force
intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b  
A td

1 - 13
1.6. Application to the analysis of simple structures G4

• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40kN
(compression)
FBC = 50kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum
normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

1 - 14
 Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional
area occurs at the pin centerline,
A 20 mm 40 mm  25 mm  300 10 6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end    6 2
167 MPa
A 300 10 m
The average value of the normal stress in the main part of the rod, between pins A
and B, since Aboom=30mmx50mm=

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression. 1 - 15
Pin Shearing Stresses
• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
2  25 mm  6 2
A  r    49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave    6 2
102 MPa
A 49110 m

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave   6 2
40.7 MPa
A 49110 m
1 - 16
Pin Bearing Stresses
• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,
we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,

P 40 kN
b   53.3 MPa
td 30 mm 25 mm 

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,

P 40 kN
b   32.0 MPa
td 50 mm 25 mm 

1 - 17
Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force
member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

1 - 18
1.7.Stress on an oblique plane under axial loading
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cos V  P sin 

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cos P
   cos 2 
A A0 A0
cos
V P sin  P
   sin  cos
A A0 A0
cos
1 - 19
 Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos 2   sin  cos
A0 A0

P
m    0
A0

P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0
NB: The same loading may produce either a normal stress and no shearing stress
, or a normal and a shearing stress of the same magnitude. 1 - 20
Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A 0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A 0 A A 0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
1 - 21
General State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx  Fy  Fz 0
 M x  M y  M z 0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z 0  xy Aa   yx Aa
 xy  yx
similarly,  yz  zy and  yz  zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress

are required to define the complete state of
stress 1 - 22
 1.8. ultimate &allowable stress:-factor of safety
Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses
are less than the ultimate strength of the material.
•Ultimate load (Pu):- The largest force which may be applied to the specimen
that the specimen either breaks or begins to carry less load.
• we may divide the ultimate load by the original cross-sectional area of the rod
to obtain the ultimate normal stress of the material used. This stress, also known
as the ultimate strength in tension of the material

•Allowable load(PA):-The maximum load that a structural member /a machine

component will be allowed to carry under normal conditions &it is smaller than
Pu
•Factor of safety:- The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load/ultimate
stress to allowable stress.

1 - 23
 Factor of safety considerations:
The determination or selection of the factor of safety that should be used in the
design of a given structure depends upon a number of considerations, some of
which were listed in this section.
•Material properties
•The number of loadings that may be expected during the life time.
•Uncertainty due to methods of analysis.
•The type of loadings that are planned for in the design.
•Number of loading cycles
•The type of failure that may occur.
•Maintenance requirements and deterioration effects
•Importance of member to structures integrity
•Risk to life and property
•Influence on machine function