U18CSI4202

OPERATING SYSTE
MS
Dr. P. Devaki & Dr. K.R. Baskaran
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
 Introduction
• What Operating Systems Do
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security
 What is an Operating System?

• A program that acts as an intermediary between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 Computer System Structure
• Computer system can be divided into four components:

• Hardware – provides basic computing resources

• CPU, memory, I/O devices

• Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and
users

• System / Application programs – define the ways in which the

system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games

• Users
• People, machines, other computers
 What Operating Systems Do
• Depends on the point of view
• Users want convenience, ease of use and good
performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
• But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer
must keep all users happy
• Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources from
servers
• Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
• Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
 Operating System Definition

• OS is a resource allocator
• Manages all resources
• Decides between conflicting requests for efficient
and fair resource use

• OS is a control program
• Controls execution of programs to prevent errors
and improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)

• No universally accepted definition

• “Everything a vendor ships when you order an
operating system” is a good approximation
• But varies wildly
• “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel.
• Everything else is either
• a system program (ships with the operating system) ,
or
• an application program.
 Computer Startup

• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or

reboot
• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 Operating System Structure

• Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency

• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times

• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute,
improves the CPU utilization.

• The jobs are kept initially on the disk in the job pool, waiting for main memory.

• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

• One job selected and run via job scheduling

• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job whereas in non
multiprogramming system CPU sits idle.
 Operating System Structure

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches

jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory process

CPU scheduling
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time 
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run

• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

• Abstract main memory into a large, separating logical memory as viewed by the user from
physical memory.
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
 Operating-System Operations
• Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
• Software error (e.g., division by zero)
• Request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
Operating-System Operations (cont.)

• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself

and other system components
• User mode and kernel mode ( Supervisor, system,
Privileged modes)
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code (1) or kernel code (0)
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable
in kernel mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it
to user
• Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest
VMs
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time
 Process Management
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active
entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
• Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:

• Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs

• Creating and deleting both user and system
processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
 Memory Management
• To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be
in memory
• All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must
be in memory.
• Memory management determines what is in memory and
when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
• Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and
by whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Storage Management
• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate,
access method (sequential or random)

• File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
• OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
 Mass-Storage Management
• Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of
time
• Proper management is of central importance
• Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
• OS activities
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Some storage need not be fast
• Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
• Still must be managed – by OS or applications
• Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)
 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit

or implicit
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most

recent value, no matter where it is stored in the storage
hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache

coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the most
recent value in their cache
• Distributed environment situation even more complex
• Several copies of a datum can exist
 I/O Subsystem
• One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of
hardware devices from the user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing
data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching
(storing parts of data in faster storage for performance),
spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input
of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices
 Protection and Security
• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
 Source
• Contents taken from PPT from Operating System
concepts- Abraham Silberschatz, Peter B Galvin and
Gerg Gagne