Sampling Design:

Chapter 4
Census and Sample Survey
• All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• At times, this method is practically beyond the reach of
ordinary researchers. Perhaps, government is the only
institution which can get the complete enumeration
carried out.
• Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every
item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to
obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a
part of the total population. In such cases there is no
utility of census surveys.
Census and Sample Survey
• When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead
to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few
items.
• The respondents selected should be as representative
of the total population as possible in order to produce a
miniature cross-section.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically
called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called
‘sampling technique.’
IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN
• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a
sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt
in selecting items for the sample.
• Sample design may as well lay down the number of
items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample.
• Sample design is determined before data are collected.
There are many sample designs from which a
researcher can choose.
• Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to
apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
• Type of universe: The first step in developing any
sample design is to clearly define the set of objects,
technically called the Universe, to be studied. The
universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the
number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite
universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot
have any idea about the total number of items. The
population of a city, the number of workers in a factory
and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas
the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific
radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples
of infinite universes.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
• Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a
sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat,
etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual.
• Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of
all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If
source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
• Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected
from the universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem
before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility
• Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one
must consider the question of the specific population parameters
which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average
or the other measure concerning the population.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
• Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point
of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only
the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
• Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the
type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design
itself. There are several sample designs (explained in the pages
that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for his
study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given
sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
Sampling error
• Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters. Since
they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction, their nature happens to be of
compensatory type and the expected value of such
errors happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error
decreases with the increase in the size of the sample,
and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
SAMPLE DESIGN
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
• Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
SAMPLE DESIGN
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
• Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE
DESIGNS
Non-probability sampling:
• Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure
which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in
the population has of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.
• In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the
researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words,
under non-probability sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose
the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the
small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative
of the whole.
• For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied,
a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the
principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement
of the organisers of the study plays an important part in this sampling design.
Probability sampling
• Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
• It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the
whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind
chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
• The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in
terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the
significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out
the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design.
• Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on
an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random
sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative
sample.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING
DESIGNS
• Systematic sampling: In some instances, the most practical way of
sampling is to select every ith item on a list. Sampling of this type is
known as systematic sampling.
• An element of randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling
by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
• For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would be
selected randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every
25th item would automatically be included in the sample. Thus, in
systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and the
remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals.
Although a systematic sample is not a random sample in the strict
sense of the term, but it is often considered reasonable to treat
systematic sample as if it were a random sample.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING
DESIGNS
• Systematic sampling has certain plus points. It can be
taken as an improvement over a simple random sample
in that the systematic sample is spread more evenly
over the entire population. It is an easier and less
costlier method of sampling and can be conveniently
used even in case of large populations. But there are
certain dangers too in using this type of sampling. If
there is a hidden periodicity in the population,
systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient
method of sampling.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING
DESIGNS
• Stratified sampling: If a population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, the stratified sampling
technique is generally applied to obtain a representative sample.
• Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-
populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total
population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then
we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
• Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population,
we are able to get more precise estimates for each stratum and by
estimating more accurately each of the parts, we get a better estimate
of the whole.
• In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed
information.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING
DESIGNS
• Cluster sampling: If the total area of interest happens to
be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample can
be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller
non-overlapping areas and then to randomly select a
number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters),
with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples
of) units in these small areas or clusters.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING
DESIGNS
• Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into
several relatively small subdivisions which are themselves
clusters of still smaller units and then some of these
clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall
sample.
• Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine
parts in an inventory which are defective. Also assume that
there are 20000 machine parts in the inventory at a given
point of time, stored in 400 cases of 50 each. Now using a
cluster sampling, we would consider the 400 cases as
clusters and randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the
machine parts in each randomly selected case.
• Area sampling: If clusters happen to be some
geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is
better known as area sampling. In other words, cluster
designs, where the primary sampling unit represents a
cluster of units based on geographic area, are
distinguished as area sampling. The plus and minus
points of cluster sampling are also applicable to area
sampling.
• Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of
cluster sampling. purpose.
• Examine the efficiencies of commercial banks.
• The first stage is to select a large primary sampling unit such as divisions in a country.
• Then we may select certain districts and interview all banks in the chosen districts.
This would represent a two-stage sampling design with the ultimate sampling units
being clusters of districts.
• If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected districts, we select certain
towns and interview all banks in the chosen towns. This would represent a three-stage
sampling design.
• If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, we randomly
sample banks from each selected town, then it is a case of using a four-stage sampling
plan.
• If we select randomly at all stages, we will have what is known as ‘multi-stage
random sampling design’.
• From a brief description of the various sample designs
presented above, we can say that normally one should resort
to simple random sampling because under it bias is generally
eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated.
• But purposive sampling is considered more appropriate when
the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic
of it is to be studied intensively.
• In a situation when random sampling is not possible, then we
have to use necessarily a sampling design other than random
sampling. At times, several methods of sampling may well be
used in the same study